Finger jointing of unseasoned Norway Spruce was studied with respect to tensile strength, adhesive penetration and durability. Finger joints were manufactured with 1) unseasoned wood and one component polyurethane (PUR) adhesive, 2) dried wood and PUR adhesive and 3) dried wood and phenol resorcinol formaldehyde (PRF) adhesive. Two levels of wood density were used. The tensile strength of the finger joints was determined and the deformations within the joint were studied with an optical measurement system (ARAMIS). The penetration of the adhesive was studied with x-ray microtomography. The durability of the joints was determined according to the standard ASTM D 4688. The results show that the tensile strength and the durability of green glued finger joints are on the same level as that of dry glued PUR joints. The penetration of the PUR adhesive is high in the unseasoned wood and cavities within the bonds seem to be smaller than in dry glued PUR joints. The tensile strength of the finger joints is dependent on density, independent on the adhesive system used. The strength of the green glued PUR adhesive bonds in finger joints measured with small scale specimens did not differ from the strength of the dry glued PUR bonds.

The results from bending tests on 107 laminated, green-glued, beams manufactured from Norway spruce side boards are presented. The beams were made by face gluing 21-25 mm thick boards using a commercial one-component moisture curing polyurethane adhesive. In addition to the bending test results, results from shape stability measurements after climatic cycling and bond line strength and durability test results are also presented. The results from the bending tests show that, by applying very simple grading rules, it is possible to obtain beams with high bending strength (with a 5%-percentile characteristic value of 40,1 MPa) and substantial stiffness (mean value of 14360 MPa). Also the shape stability of the beams and the strength and the durability of the interlaminar bonds were found to be satisfactory.

Unseasoned (green) spruce timber side boards of size 25 × 120 × 600 mm were flatwise-glued with a one-component PUR adhesive. Glued pairs of boards were then kiln-dried to 12 % moisture content. A special small-scale specimen for testing the fracture properties of the adhesive bond in Mode I was developed in order to evaluate the adhesive bond properties. The complete force versus deformation curve, including both the ascending and the descending parts, could be obtained with these small-scale specimens, enabling the strength and fracture energy of the bond line to be calculated. In addition, the fractured specimens were examined by scanning electron microscope. Results show that both the tensile strength and the fracture energy of the green glued PUR adhesive bonds were equal to those of the dry glued bonds. The methodology developed and used in the present study gives new possibilities for analysis of the mechanical behaviour of wood adhesive bonds, and particularly of their brittleness and its correlation with the type of fracture path. This is in sharp contrast to the use of standardised test methods (e.g. EN 302, ASTM D905) with specimens having relatively large glued areas. Using such types of specimens, it is not possible to obtain the complete force versus deformation response of the bond. In addition, when using such test methods, failure takes place in the wood or in the fibres near the bond, thus making it impossible to obtain detailed information about the bond line characteristics.

A study of three different adhesives, silicone, acrylate and polyurethane, intended for adhesive joints in structural timber/glass applications is presented in this paper. Intentionally, adhesives with a wide range of properties were chosen. The adhesive bonds between timber and glass were tested both in tension and in shear with a bond area of 800 mm². Special fixtures were designed both for gluing and testing the specimens. The results include strength and failure type of the adhesive bond as well as deformation of the bond lines, measured with LVDTs and a non-contact optical 3D-deformation measuring system used in combination with finite element modelling in order to obtain detailed information about the behaviour.

Of the tested adhesives, the acrylate (SikaFast 5215) provided the largest strength, both in tension and shear. The mean strength obtained for this adhesive bond was 3.0 MPa in tension and 4.5 MPa in shear.

Further, it is demonstrated how rotations in the specimen during the test can be detected with the optical measuring system and how finite element modelling can be used to study the stress distribution internally in the adhesive bond. One conclusion obtained from the combination of results from the optical measuring system and finite element modelling is that the behaviour of the silicone adhesive is highly influenced by its near incompressible behaviour.

The gluing of unseasoned wood, called green gluing, is a relatively new sawmill process, implying a radically changed order of material flow in the production of value-added wood-based products. It facilitates the enhancement of raw material recovery and value yield by integrating defect elimination and gluing already before kiln drying. The present study evaluates green glued adhesive bonds in flatwise glued beams and finger joints. The main part of this work deals with green gluing using a moisture curing polyurethane adhesive (PUR). Standardised test methods and specially designed, small scale, specimens were used for the determination of the strength, fracture energy and the ductility of both dry- and green glued bonds in tension and in shear. Using the small scale specimens it was possible to capture the complete stress versus deformation curves, including also their unloading part. An optical system for deformation measurement was used for the analysis of bond behaviour. The influence of moisture content during curing and temperature after curing on the adhesive chemical composition and on the mechanical properties was investigated. Furthermore, the moisture transport through the adhesive bond during curing was tested. Finally, microscopy studies were performed for analysis of bond morphology and fracture. The results show that two significant factors influence the shear strength of green glued bonds: wood density and adhesive spread rate. Bonds which fulfil the requirements according to EN 386 could be obtained within a wide range of process parameters. The small specimen tests showed that green glued PUR bonds can reach the same strength and fracture energy, both in shear and in tension, as dry glued bonds with the same adhesive amount. The local material properties of the bonds could be determined, thanks to the failure in the tests taking place within the adhesive bond itself and not in the wood. Following process factors were shown to cause lower bond strength: a) a low adhesive spread rate, b) high pressure and c) short pressing time in combination with low wood density and high moisture content. Moreover, the heat treatment of the cured PUR adhesive during drying influenced the chemical composition of the adhesive, providing for higher strength, stiffness and T_g of the adhesive, caused by an increased amount of highly ordered bidentate urea.

A commercial one-component moisture-cured polyurethane-urea wood adhesive was investigated under different curing environments to simulate parameters during green gluing, that is, gluing of freshly sawn and undried timber. This process is an eco-efficient and waste eliminating process in which only the finished wood product properties have been tested; however, not the adhesive itself. Therefore, the effect of moisture and postcuring heat treatment on the adhesive properties such as cure, chemical, and physical characteristics, and adhesion to wood were studied. It was determined by rheometry that the water content was proportional to the time to gel point, with moisture content of 2.65.6 wt % water, resulting in a higher initial storage modulus of the adhesive. Additionally, it was found that the strength of the wet glued bonds was significantly higher after the heat treatment, corresponding to the increase in ordered bidentate groups (Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy), higher storage modulus (rheometry), and higher Tg (dynamic mechanical thermal analysis).

The shear fracture properties of green-glued one-component polyurethane (PUR) wood adhesive bonds subjected to kiln drying were investigated. The local shear strength and fracture energy of the wood adhesive bonds were determined from experimentally recorded complete shear stress versus deformation curves of the bond line. A stable test set-up and small specimens that were anti-symmetrically loaded were used in order to get a uniform and pure state of shear stress. Different moisture contents (MCs) and pressing times were investigated. The fracture properties of conventionally dry-glued wood adhesive bonds and of solid wood were used as reference. The results show that the fracture energy of green-glued bonds with PUR adhesive is dependent on the MC of wood and on the pressing time. The same fracture energy and strength can be obtained by green gluing as by dry gluing, but there seems to exist a maximum MC of sapwood, in the range between 78% and 160%, and a minimum pressing time, in the range between 3 h and 48 h, for which it can be achieved. Both dry- and green-glued polyurethane adhesive bonds were more ductile than solid wood.

In a previous research project, carried out during the years 2006-2008, the possibility to manufacture wet glued laminated beams using ungraded laminations of Norway spruce side boards was investigated with very promising results.

In the project presented in this report, the performance of the wet glued beams has been further investigated and developed as regards grading of side board laminations, bond line properties and lamination finger jointing. The possibility to use scanning equipment for measurement of fibre angles and prediction of strength and stiffness of boards and beams has been studied and the procedures for technical approval and CE marking have been probed into. Studies concerning market and economy for the beams and layouts for a pilot plant and a full capacity plant, respectively, for production of such beams have also been carried out.

The possibility to grade side boards in the wet state using axial dynamic excitation was investigated with a positive result. From such excitation, a board’s stiffness (modulus of elasticity) could be determined. Accordingly, grading criteria regarding axial stiffness, and knot size, was applied to grade side board laminations into two classes; outer and inner laminations. Strength and stiffness tests of beams manufactured from such graded laminations showed that the beams actually could challenge first rate glulam and LVL products available on the market.

Regarding beam shape and shape stability, cross section cupping may need further attention. Even if this deformation was small, it was still visible to the naked eye. The problem could probably be overcome if the beams are dried to a moisture content of 12-14% before planing.

Results of shear tests show that green glued bond lines can fulfil strength requirements for glulam. However, delamination requirements for service class 3 (outdoors) were not fully met. From small scale tensile testing of glued bonds it was concluded that green glued bonds with high density wood have the same tensile strength and fracture energy as dry glued bonds. For bonds with low density wood and/or small amount of adhesive, the tensile strength could be lower than for dry glued bonds, whereas the fracture energy was on a similar level.

Strength testing of wet and dry glued finger joints demonstrated that joints glued from high density wood was significantly stronger than low density joints and that there was no significant difference between the strength of green glued joints and joints glued after drying. From X-ray measurement it was shown that the glue penetration into the wood fibres is much deeper in a green glued joint than in a joint that is glued in the dried state.

From scanning algorithms developed within the scope of this project it is possible to obtain reasonably accurate predictions of grain-angle distributions on board surfaces as well as rather accurate descriptions of knot locations and of fibre-angle disturbances around knots. From scanning of board ends, cross section characteristics with respect to radial and tangential directions and of annual ring widths could also be determined. Finally, both board and beam stiffness were predicted from this data, with an accuracy that is comparable with the one obtained from well-reputed commercial grading systems.

The work presented in this paper deals with the use of green gluing (also known as wet gluing) as a mean to overcome the difficulties in making use of side boards for structural applications. By manufacturing laminated beams from unseasoned side boards several advantages are obtained. Beams were manufactured from side boards of approximately 25 mm thickness. The board width was 120 mm. The boards were glued together with a 1-component polyurethane adhesive to form a beam cross-section of approximately 120×315 mm2. After curing, the beams were split into two halves, each approximately 55 mm wide. These 55×315 mm2 beams were then dried in a conventional kiln dryer. Finally, the beams were planed to target size, 50×300 mm2. Tests performed included beam bending tests for strength and stiffness, tests of the shape stability of the beams, tests of the integrity of the adhesive bond lines (delamination) and tests on the strength and fracture energy of the adhesive bond lines. The main results obtained show that there is a potential for the production of green-glued laminated beams with good technical performance.

Both timber and glass are materials that have aesthetically pleasing properties. An appealing idea is to combine them to overcome the drawbacks and utilise the beneficial mechanical properties. Adhesive bonding with an appropriate adhesive could provide a uniform stress distribution at the transition between the materials.

This report presents a study of three different adhesives, silicone, acrylate and polyurethane. Intentionally, adhesives with a wide range of properties were chosen. The adhesive bonds between timber and glass were tested both in tension and in shear with rather small bonds, 800 mm². Special fixtures were designed both for gluing and testing of the adhesive bond specimens studied. The results presented include a traditional study of strength, failure type and relative displacement measured with LVDT’s, but also an extended study with a non-contact optical 3D-deformation measuring system and finite element modelling.

Of the adhesives tested, the acrylate (SikaFast 5215) performed best, both in tension and shear. The mean strength obtained for this adhesive was 3.0 MPa in tension and 4.5 MPa in shear. Even if an important factor when gluing glass is the load distribution ability, the flexible silicone adhesive has too low stiffness and strength for use in structural components, where structural refers to the ability of a component to carry loads other than its own weight.