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Refractive error, axial length, environmental and hereditary factors associated with myopia in Swedish children
Linnaeus University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Medicine and Optometry.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9970-3237
Linnaeus University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Medicine and Optometry.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3745-0035
Linnaeus University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Medicine and Optometry.
Linnaeus University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Medicine and Optometry.
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2021 (English)In: Clinical and experimental optometry, ISSN 0816-4622, E-ISSN 1444-0938, Vol. 104, no 5, p. 595-601Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Sustainable development
SDG 3: Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all at all ages
Abstract [en]

Clinical relevance: Investigation of refractive errors amongst Swedish schoolchildren will help identify risk factors associated with myopia development.Background: Genetic and hereditary aspects have been linked with the development of myopia. Nevertheless, in the case of ‘school myopia’ some authors suggest that environmental factors may affect gene expression, causing school myopia to soar. Additional understanding about which environmental factors play a relevant role can be gained by studying refractive errors in countries like Sweden, where prevalence of myopia is expected to be low.Methods: Swedish schoolchildren aged 8-16 years were invited to participate. Participants underwent an eye examination, including cycloplegic refraction and axial length (AL) measurements. Predictors such as time spent in near work, outdoor activities and parental myopia were obtained using a questionnaire. Myopia was defined as spherical equivalent refraction (SER) ≤ −0.50D and hyperopia as SER ≥ +0.75D.Results: A total of 128 children (70 females and 58 males) participated in this study with mean age of 12.0 years (SD = 2.4). Based on cycloplegic SER of the right eye, the distribution of refractive errors was: hyperopia 48.0% (CI95 = 38.8-56.7), emmetropia 42.0% (CI95 = 33.5-51.2) and myopia 10.0%. (CI95 = 4.4-14.9). The mean AL was 23.1 mm (SD = 0.86), there was a correlation between SER and AL, r = −0.65 (p < 0.001). Participants with two myopic parents had higher myopia and increased axial length than those with one or no myopic parents. The mean time spent in near work, outside of school, was 5.3 hours-per-day (SD = 3.1), and mean outdoor time reported was 2.6 hours-per-day (SD = 2.2) for all the participants. The time spent in near work and outdoor time were different for different refractive error categories.Conclusion: The prevalence of myopia amongst Swedish schoolchildren is low. Hereditary and environmental factors are associated with refractive error categories. Further studies with this sample are warranted to investigate how refractive errors and environmental factors interact over time.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Taylor & Francis Group, 2021. Vol. 104, no 5, p. 595-601
National Category
Ophthalmology
Research subject
Natural Science, Optometry
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-101455DOI: 10.1080/08164622.2021.1878833ISI: 000624746100001PubMedID: 33689658Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85102313065Local ID: 2021OAI: oai:DiVA.org:lnu-101455DiVA, id: diva2:1533045
Available from: 2021-03-03 Created: 2021-03-03 Last updated: 2024-10-10Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Prevalence of refractive errors and incidence of myopia in Swedish schoolchildren
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Prevalence of refractive errors and incidence of myopia in Swedish schoolchildren
2022 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Purpose

The aim of this thesis was to investigate the prevalence, incidence, and risk factors for myopia development in a cohort of Swedish schoolchildren. The specific goals were: - to recruit a cohort of children aged 8 to 16 years and to follow the cohort over a period of 24 months with regular study visits; - to investigate the predictive value of relative peripheral error and other optical parameters for the prevalence and incidence of myopia; - to determine and investigate the predictive value of genetic and environmental factors, and structural characteristics of the eye to the incidence of myopia.

Methods

This was a longitudinal study with a follow-up period of 2-years conducted at Linnaeus University in Kalmar. All participants underwent eye examinations and completed questionnaires at regular intervals during the follow-up period. Data analysis was performed assuming hypotheses such as: - myopia development is associated with genetic factors and environmental factors (Papers I and IV); - changes in refractive error over time are explained by multiple genetic and environmental factors (Paper IV) - instruments with different measurement principles can lead to different refraction results (Paper II); - there is a relationship between refractive error and the characteristics of the choroid (Exploratory study, not published) and the characteristics of the microvasculature of the retina (Paper III).

Results

A total of 128 children (70 females and 58 males) participated in this study with mean age of 12.0 years (SD=2.4). Paper I: based on cycloplegic SER of the right eye, the distribution of refractive errors was: hyperopia 48.0% (CI95=38.8-56.7), emmetropia 42.0% (CI95=33.5-51.2) and myopia 10.0%. (CI95=4.4-14.9). Participants with two myopic parents had higher myopia and increased axial length than those with one or no myopic parents. Paper II: The Shin-Nippon was 0.30 D more hyperopic than COAS-HD VR at 2.5-mm pupil and 0.50 D more hyperopic than COAS-HD VR at 5-mm pupil for central refraction. Paper III: The sample included 86 out of the 128 participants, 51 (59%) females. The area of the foveal avascular zone (AFAZ) was correlated with central vessel density, perfusion, foveal thickness and with fovea-to-macula thickness ratio. Paper IV: The cumulative incidence of myopia during the two-years was 5.5%, incidence rate of myopia was 3.2 cases per 100 person-years. Cox regression revealed that the probability of myopic shift reduced with “age” and increased with “axial length/corneal-curvature ratio”. Myopic children at the baseline and children with two myopic parents showed a significant faster-paced SER change over time.

Conclusion

The prevalence and incidence of myopia in Sweden was lower than expected when compared with countries in East Asia. Genetic factors such as parental myopia remains a critical factor to consider when predicting myopia onset and progression. Children born full-term and visual acuity within the normal range can have very different retinal microvasculature at the centre of the macula that may influence refractive error development. Future studies are necessary to find out possible relationships between vasculature, structural changes and refractive error development. In addition, more studies involving children from different ethnicities and incorporating longer follow-up period are necessary to increase our understanding of the incidence of myopia in Swedish schoolchildren.

Abstract [sv]

Syfte

Syftet med denna avhandling var att undersöka prevalensen, incidensen och riskfaktorer för myopiutveckling hos svenska skolbarn. De specifika målen var att (1) rekrytera barn i åldrarna 8 till 16 år och följa de under en 24 månaders period med regelbundna studiebesök, (2) att undersöka det prediktiva värdet för det relativa perifera synfelet och andra optiska parametrar för prevalensen och incidensen av myopi, (3) att avgöra och undersöka det prediktiva värdet för genetiska och miljömässiga faktorer, samt ögats strukturella egenskaper hos ögat i förhållande till incidensen av myopi.

Metoder

Detta var en longitudinell studie med en uppföljningstid på 2 år och genomfördes vid Linnéuniversitetet i Kalmar. Under uppföljningstiden genomgick alla deltagare synundersökningar och fyllde i frågeformulär med jämna mellanrum. Dataanalys utfördes med antagande av hypoteser som: (1) myopiutveckling är associerad med genetiska faktorer och miljöfaktorer (Artikel I och IV), (2) förändringar av synfel som sker över tid förklaras av flera genetiska och miljömässiga faktorer (Artikel IV), (3) instrument med olika mätprinciper kan leda till olika refraktionsresultat (Artikel II), det finns ett samband mellan synfel och åderhinnans egenskaper (explanativ studie, ej publicerad) samt (4) ett samband mellan synfel och egenskaperna hos näthinnans mikrovaskulatur (Artikel III).

Resultat

Totalt deltog 128 barn (70 flickor och 58 pojkar) i denna studie med en medelålder på 12,0 år (SD=2,4). Artikel I: Baserat på höger ögats cykloplegiska sfäriska ekvivalent refraktion (SER) var fördelningen av synfel: hyperopi 48,0% (CI95=38,8–56,7), emmetropi 42,0% (CI95=33,5–51,2) och myopi 10,0% (CI95=4,4–14,9). Deltagare med två myopa föräldrar hade högre myopi och ökad axiallängd jämfört med de som hade en eller inga myopa föräldrar. Artikel II: Shin-Nippon visade 0,30 D mer hyperopi än COAS-HD VR med 2,5 mm pupilldiameter och 0,50 D mer hyperopi än COAS-HD VR med 5 mm pupilldiameter för centrala refraktionen. Artikel III: Urvalet bestod av 86 av de 128 deltagande, 51 (59 %) flickor. Arean av den foveala avaskulära zonen (AFAZ) korrelerades med central kärldensitet, perfusion, foveal tjocklek och med fovea-till-makula tjockleksförhållande. Artikel IV: Under de två åren var den kumulativa incidensen av myopi 5,5 %, incidensfrekvensen av myopi 3,2 fall per 100 personår. Cox-regression visade att sannolikheten för att en myopisk förändring ska ske minskade med "åldern" och ökade med "axiell längd/korneal-krökningsförhållande". Myopa barn vid studiens start och barn med två myopa föräldrar visade en signifikant snabbare SER-förändring över tiden.

Slutsats

Prevalensen och incidensen av myopi var lägre än förväntat i Sverige jämfört med länder i Östasien. Genetiska faktorer som myopi hos föräldrar är fortfarande en kritisk faktor att ta hänsyn till när man förutsäger debut och progression av myopi. Barn som är fullgångna och har en synskärpa inom normalområdet kan ha mycket varierande retinal mikrovaskulatur i makula som sin tur kan påverka utvecklingen av synfel. Framtida studier är nödvändiga för att ta reda på möjliga samband mellan vaskulatur, strukturella förändringar och utveckling av synfel. Dessutom är fler studier som involverar barn från olika etniciteter och som inkluderar längre uppföljningsperiod nödvändiga för att öka vår förståelse och kunskap för förekomsten av myopi hos svenska skolbarn

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Växjö: Linnaeus University Press, 2022. p. 172
Series
Linnaeus University Dissertations ; 457
Keywords
Refractive error, myopia, prevalence, incidence, risk factors, children, fovea, macula, autorefractor, aberrometer, synfel, refraktion, myopi, barn, prevalens, incidens, riskfaktorer, fovea, makula, autorefractor, aberrometer
National Category
Ophthalmology
Research subject
Natural Science, Optometry
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-115701 (URN)9789189709218 (ISBN)9789189709225 (ISBN)
Public defence
2022-09-02, Room Lapis, Hus Vita, Kalmar and via zoom, Pedalstråket 11, 392 31 Kalmar, Kalmar, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2022-08-12 Created: 2022-08-09 Last updated: 2024-10-10Bibliographically approved

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Demir, PelsinBaskaran, KarthikeyanTheagarayan, BaskarGierow, PeterMacedo, António Filipe

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