We analyze, from the point of view of quantum probability, statistical data from two interesting experiments, done by Shafir and Tversky [1, 2] in the domain of cognitive psychology. These are gambling experiments of Prisoner Dilemma type. They have important consequences for economics, especially for the justification of the Savage "Sure Thing Principle" [3] (implying that agents of the market behave rationally). Data from these experiments were astonishing, both from the viewpoint of cognitive psychology and economics and probability theory. Players behaved irrationally. Moreover, all attempts to generate these data by using classical Markov model were unsuccessful. In this note we show (by inventing a simple statistical test — generalized detailed balance condition) that these data are non-Kolmogorovian. We also show that it is neither quantum (i.e., it cannot be described by Dirac-von Neumann model). We proceed towards a quantum Markov model for these data.

Recently a novel quantum information formalism - quantum adaptive dynamics - was developed and applied to modelling of information processing by bio-systems including cognitive phenomena: from molecular biology (glucose-lactose metabolism for E.coli bacteria, epigenetic evolution) to cognition, psychology. From the foundational point of view quantum adaptive dynamics describes mutual adapting of the information states of two interacting systems (physical or biological) as well as adapting of co-observations performed by the systems. In this paper we apply this formalism to model unconscious inference: the process of transition from sensation to perception. The paper combines theory and experiment. Statistical data collected in an experimental study on recognition of a particular ambiguous figure, the Schroer stairs, support the viability of the quantum(-like) model of unconscious inference including modelling of biases generated by rotation-contexts. From the probabilistic point of view, we study (for concrete experimental data) the problem of contextuality of probability, its dependence on experimental contexts. Mathematically contextuality leads to non-Komogorovness: probability distributions generated by various rotation contexts cannot be treated in the Kolmogorovian framework. At the same time they can be embedded in a "big Kolmogorov space" as conditional probabilities. However, such a Kolmogorov space has too complex structure and the operational quantum formalism in the form of quantum adaptive dynamics simplifies the modelling essentially.

We have previously shown that the use of the fair sampling assumption in EPR experiments could be questioned on the basis of experimental data. We continue our analysis of the data from the optical EPR experimental performed by Weihs et al. in Innsbruck 1997-1998, and we discuss whether a non-rotationally invariant source can account for the experimental results.

We present some recent results of a new statistical analysis of the optical EPR experiment performed by Weihs et al in Innsbruck 1997-1998. Under the commonly used assumption of fair sampling, we show that the coincidence counts exhibit a small and anomalous non-signalling component, which seems impossible to explain by using the conventional quantum mechanics, and we discuss some possible interpretations of this phenomenon.

We analyse optical EPR experimental data performed by Weihs et al in Innsbruck 1997–1998. We show that for some linear combinations of the raw coincidence rates, the experimental results display some anomalous behaviour that a more general source state (like non-maximally entangled state) cannot straightforwardly account for. We attempt to explain these anomalies by taking account of the relative efficiencies of the four channels. For this purpose, we use the fair sampling assumption, and assume explicitly that the detection efficiencies for the pairs of entangled photons can be written as a product of the two corresponding detection efficiencies for the single photons. We show that this explicit use of fair sampling cannot be maintained to be a reasonable assumption as it leads to an apparent violation of the no-signalling principle.

We analyze the data from the loophole-free CHSH experiment performed by Hensen et al., and show that it is actually not exempt of an important loophole. By increasing the size of the sample of event-ready detections, one can exhibit in the experimental data a violation of the no-signaling principle with a statistical significance at least similar to that of the reported violation of the CHSH inequality, if not stronger. The data from the loophole-free CHSH experiment performed by Hensen et al. are analysed, It is shown that it is actually not exempt of an important loophole. By increasing the size of the sample of event-ready detections, one can exhibit in the experimental data a violation of the no-signaling principle with a statistical significance at least similar to that of the reported violation of the CHSH inequality, if not stronger.

We propose a double blinding-attack on entangled-based quantum key distribution protocols. The principle of the attack is the same as in existing blinding attack except that instead of blinding the detectors on one side only, Eve is blinding the detectors of both Alice and Bob. In the BBM92 protocol, the attack allows Eve to get a full knowledge of the key and remain undetected even if Alice and Bob are using 100% efficient detectors. The attack can be easily extended to Ekert protocol, with an efficiency as high as 85.3%.

We propose a multiple-photon absorption attack on Quantum Key Distribution protocols. In this attack, the eavesdropper (Eve) is in control of the source and sends pulses correlated in polarization (but not entangled) containing several photons at frequencies for which only multiple-photon absorptions are possible in Alice's and Bob's detectors. Whenever the number of photons from one pulse are dispatched in insufficient number to trigger a multiple-photon absorption in either channel, the pulse remains undetected. We show that this simple feature is enough to reproduce the type of statistics on the detected pulses that are considered as indicating a secure quantum key distribution in entangled-based protocols, even though the source is controlled by Eve, and we discuss possible countermeasures.

Recent years have been characterized by tremendous advances in quantum information and communication, both theoretically and experimentally. In addition, mathematical methods of quantum information and quantum probability have begun spreading to other areas of research, beyond physics. One exciting new possibility involves applying these methods to information science and computer science (without direct relation to the problems of creation of quantum computers). 

The aim of this Special Volume is to encourage scientists, especially the new generation (master and PhD students), working in computer science and related mathematical fields to explore novel possibilities based on the mathematical formalisms of quantum information and probability.  The contributing authors, who hail from various countries, combine extensive quantum methods expertise with real-world experience in application of these methods to computer science. The problems considered chiefly concern quantum information-probability based modeling in the following areas: information foraging; interactive quantum information access; deep convolutional neural networks; decision making, quantum dynamics; open quantum systems; and theory of contextual probability. 

The book offers young scientists (students, PhD, postdocs) an essential introduction to applying the mathematical apparatus of quantum theory to computer science, information retrieval, and information processes. 

The aim of this short review is to attract the attention of the pseudo-differentialcommunity to possibilities in the development of operator calculus for symbols (dependingon p-adic conjugate variables) taking values in fields of p-adic numbers. Essentials of thiscalculus were presented in works of the authors of this paper in order to perform p-adic valuedquantization. Unfortunately, this calculus still has not attracted a great deal of attentionfrom pure mathematicians, although it opens new and interesting domains for the theory ofpseudo-differential operators.

This review covers an important domain of p-adic mathematical physics — quantum mechanics with p-adic valued wave functions. We start with basic mathematical constructions of this quantum model: Hilbert spaces over quadratic extensions of the field of p-adic numbers ℚ _p , operators — symmetric, unitary, isometric, one-parameter groups of unitary isometric operators, the p-adic version of Schrödinger’s quantization, representation of canonical commutation relations in Heisenberg andWeyl forms, spectral properties of the operator of p-adic coordinate.We also present postulates of p-adic valued quantization. Here observables as well as probabilities take values in ℚ _p . A physical interpretation of p-adic quantities is provided through approximation by rational numbers.

Distributed intelligence systems (DIS) containing natural and artificial intelligence agents (NIA and AIA) for decision making (DM) belong to promising interdisciplinary studies aimed at digitalization of routine processes in industry, economy, management, and everyday life. In this work, we suggest a novel quantum-inspired approach to investigate the crucial features of DIS consisting of NIAs (users) and AIAs (digital assistants, or avatars). We suppose that N users and their avatars are located in N nodes of a complex avatar - avatar network. The avatars can receive information from and transmit it to each other within this network, while the users obtain information from the outside. The users are associated with their digital assistants and cannot communicate with each other directly. Depending on the meaningfulness/uselessness of the information presented by avatars, users show their attitude making emotional binary "like"/"dislike" responses. To characterize NIA cognitive abilities in a simple DM process, we propose a mapping procedure for the Russell's valence-arousal circumplex model onto an effective quantum-like two-level system. The DIS aims to maximize the average satisfaction of users via AIAs long-term adaptation to their users. In this regard, we examine the opinion formation and social impact as a result of the collective emotional state evolution occurring in the DIS. We show that generalized cooperativity parameters G_i, i = 1,...,N introduced in this work play a significant role in DIS features reflecting the users activity in possible cooperation and responses to their avatar suggestions. These parameters reveal how frequently AIAs and NIAs communicate with each other accounting the cognitive abilities of NIAs and information losses within the network. We demonstrate that conditions for opinion formation and social impact in the DIS are relevant to the second-order non-equilibrium phase transition. The transition establishes a non-vanishing average information field inherent to information diffusion and long-term avatar adaptation to their users. It occurs above the phase transition threshold, i.e. at G_i > 1, which implies small (residual) social polarization of the NIAs community. Below the threshold, at weak AIA-NIA coupling (G_i ≤ 1), many uncertainties in the DIS inhibit opinion formation and social impact for the DM agents due to the information diffusion suppression; the AIAs self-organization within the avatar-avatar network is elucidated in this limit. To increase the users' impact, we suggest an adaptive approach by establishing a network-dependent coupling rate with their digital assistants. In this case, the mechanism of AIA control helps resolve the DM process in the presence of some uncertainties resulting from the variety of users' preferences. Our findings open new perspectives in different areas where AIAs become effective teammates for humans to solve common routine problems in network organizations.

Quantum-inspired algorithms represent an important direction in modern software information technologies that use heuristic methods and approaches of quantum science. This work presents a quantum approach for document search, retrieval, and ranking based on the Bell-like test, which is well-known in quantum physics. We propose quantum probability theory in the hyperspace analog to language (HAL) framework exploiting a Hilbert space for word and document vector specification. The quantum approach allows for accounting for specific user preferences in different contexts. To verify the algorithm proposed, we use a dataset of synthetic advertising text documents from travel agencies generated by the OpenAI GPT-4 model. We show that the "entanglement" in two-word document search and retrieval can be recognized as the frequent occurrence of two words in incompatible query contexts. We have found that the user preferences and word ordering in the query play a significant role in relatively small sizes of the HAL window. The comparison with the cosine similarity metrics demonstrates the key advantages of our approach based on the user-enforced contextual and semantic relationships between words and not just their superficial occurrence in texts. Our approach to retrieving and ranking documents allows for the creation of new information search engines that require no resource-intensive deep machine learning algorithms.

In this work we suggest a novel paradigm of social laser (solaser), which can explain such Internet inspired social phenomena as echo chambers, reinforcement and growth of information cascades, enhancement of social actions under strong mass media operation. The solaser is based on a wellknown in quantum physics laser model of coherent amplification of the optical field. Social networks are at the core of the solaser model; we define them by means of a network model possessing power-law degree distribution. In the solaser the network environment plays the same role as the gain medium has in a physical laser device. We consider social atoms as decision making agents (humans or even chat bots), which possess two (mental) states and occupy the nodes of a network. The solaser establishes communication between the agents as absorption and spontaneous or stimulated emission of socially actual information within echo chambers, which mimic an optical resonator of a convenient (physical) laser. We have demonstrated that social lasing represents the second order nonequilibrium phase transition, which evokes the release of coherent socially stimulated information field represented with the order parameter. The solaser implies the formation of macroscopic social polarization and results in a huge social impact, which is realized by viral information cascades occurring in the presence of population imbalance (social bias). We have shown that decision making agents follow an adiabatically time dependent mass media pump, which acts in the network community reproducing various reliable scenarios for information cascade evolution. We have also shown that in contrast to physical lasers, due to node degree peculiarities, the coupling strength of decision making agents with the network may be enhanced root < k > times. It leads to a large increase of speed, at which a viral message spreads through a social media. In this case, the mass media pump supports additional reinforcement and acceleration of cascade growth. We have revealed that the solaser model in some approximations possesses clear links with familiar !sing and SIS (susceptible-infected-susceptible) models typically used for evaluating a social impact and information growth, respectively. However, the solaser paradigm can serve as a new platform for modelling temporal social events, which originate from "microscopic" (quantum-like) processes occurring in the society. Our findings open new perspectives for interdisciplinary studies of distributed intelligence agents behavior associated with information exchange and social impact.

In this work, we suggest a quantum-like simulator concept to study social processes related to the solution of NP-hard problems. The simulator is based on the solaser model recently proposed by us in the framework of information cascade growth and echo chamber formation in social network communities. The simulator is connected with the random laser approach that we examine in the A and D-class (superradiant) laser limits. Novel network-enforced cooperativity parameters of decision-making agents, which may be measured as a result of the solaser simulation, are introduced and justified for social systems. The innovation diffusion in complex networks is discussed as one of the possible impacts of our proposal.

In the paper, we obtain necessary and sufficient conditions for ergodicity (with respect to the normalized Haar measure) of discrete dynamical systems < f; S2-r (a)> on 2-adic spheres S2-r (a) of radius 2(-r), r >= 1, centered at some point a from the ultrametric space of 2-adic integers Z(2). The map f: Z(2) -> Z(2) is assumed to be non-expanding and measure-preserving; that is, f satisfies a Lipschitz condition with a constant 1 with respect to the 2-adic metric, and f preserves a natural probability measure on Z(2), the Haar measure mu(2) on Z(2) which is normalized so that mu(2)(Z(2)) = 1.

The paper presents new criteria for bijectivity/transitivity of T-functions and a fast knapsack-like algorithm of evaluation of a T-function. Our approach is based on non-Archimedean ergodic theory: Both the criteria and algorithm use van der Put series to represent 1-Lipschitz p-adic functions and to study measure-preservation/ergodicity of these.

Biological systems have been shown to have quantum-like behaviors by applying the adaptive dynamics view on their interaction networks. In particular, in the process of lactose-glucose metabolism, cells generate probabilistic interference patterns similarly to photons in the two-slit experiment. Such quantum-like interference patterns can be found in biological data, on all scales, from proteins to cognitive, ecological, and social systems. The adaptive dynamics approach covers both biological and physical phenomena, including the ones which are typically associated with quantum physics. We guess that the adaptive dynamics can be used for the clarification of quantum foundations, and the present paper is the first step in this direction. We suggest the use of an algorithm for the numerical simulation of the behavior of a billiard ball-like particle passing through two slits by explicitly considering the influence of the two-slit environment (experimental context). Our simulation successfully mimics the interference pattern obtained experimentally in quantum physics. The interference of photons or electrons by two slits is known as a typical quantum mechanical effect. We do not claim that the adaptive dynamics can reproduce the whole body of quantum mechanics, but we hope that this numerical simulation example will stimulate further extensive studies in this direction-the representation of quantum physical phenomena in an adaptive dynamical framework.

We study the Cauchy problem for p-adic non-linear evolutionary pseudo-differential equations for complex-valued functions of a real positive time variable and p-adic spatial variables. Among the equations under consideration there is the p-adic analog of the porous medium equation (or more generally, the nonlinear filtration equation) which arise in numerous application in mathematical physics and mathematical biology. Our approach is based on the construction of a linear Markov semigroup on a p-adic ball and the proof of m-accretivity of the appropriate nonlinear operator. The latter result is equivalent to the existence and uniqueness of a mild solution of the Cauchy problem of a nonlinear equation of the porous medium type.

We develop the p-adic model of propagation of fluids (e.g., oil or water) in capillary networks in a porous random medium. The hierarchic structure of a system of capillaries is mathematically modeled by endowing trees of capillaries with the structure of an ultra metric space. Considerations are restricted to the case of idealized networks represented by homogeneous p-trees with p branches leaving each vertex, where p > 1 is a prime number. Such trees are realized as the fields of p-adic numbers. We introduce and study an inhomogeneous Markov process describing the penetration of fluid into a porous random medium. (C) 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

We present a brief review of some parts of p-adic mathematical physics related to the scientific work of Branko Dragovich on the occasion of his 70th birthday.

This research is related to the problem of “irrational decision making or inference” that have been discussed in cognitive psychology. There are some experimental studies, and these statistical data cannot be described by classical probability theory. The process of decision making generating these data cannot be reduced to the classical Bayesian inference. For this problem, a number of quantum-like coginitive models of decision making was proposed. Our previous work represented in a natural way the classical Bayesian inference in the frame work of quantum mechanics. By using this representation, in this paper, we try to discuss the non-Bayesian (irrational) inference that is biased by effects like the quantum interference. Further, we describe “psychological factor” disturbing “rationality” as an “environment” correlating with the “main system” of usual Bayesian inference.

We present the general formalism of decision making which is based on the theory of open quantum systems. A person (decision maker), say Alice, is considered as a quantum-like system, i.e., a system which information processing follows the laws of quantum information theory. To make decision, Alice interacts with a huge mental bath. Depending on context of decision making this bath can include her social environment, mass media (TV, newspapers, INTERNET), and memory. Dynamics of an ensemble of such Alices is described by Gorini-Kossakowski-Sudarshan-Lindblad (GKSL) equation. We speculate that in the processes of evolution biosystems (especially human beings) designed such “mental Hamiltonians” and GKSL-operators that any solution of the corresponding GKSL-equation stabilizes to a diagonal density operator (In the basis of decision making.) This limiting density operator describes population in which all superpositions of possible decisions has already been resolved. In principle, this approach can be used for the prediction of the distribution of possible decisions in human populations.

In this paper, we introduce a new model of selection behavior under risk that describes an essential cognitive process for comparing values of objects and making a selection decision. This model is constructed by the quantum-like approach that employs the state representation specific to quantum theory, which has the mathematical framework beyond the classical probability theory. We show that our quantum approach can clearly explain the famous examples of anomalies for the expected utility theory, the Ellsberg paradox, the Machina paradox and the disparity between WTA and WTP. Further, we point out that our model mathematically specifies the characteristics of the probability weighting function and the value function, which are basic concepts in the prospect theory. (C) 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

In cognitive psychology, some experiments for games were reported, and they demonstrated that real players did not use the "rational strategy" provided by classical game theory and based on the notion of the Nasch equilibrium. This psychological phenomenon was called the disjunction effect. Recently, we proposed a model of decision making which can explain this effect ("irrationality" of players) Asano et al. (2010, 2011) [23,24]. Our model is based on the mathematical formalism of quantum mechanics, because psychological fluctuations inducing the irrationality are formally represented as quantum fluctuations Asano et al. (2011)[55]. In this paper, we reconsider the process of quantum-like decision-making more closely and redefine it as a well-defined quantum dynamics by using the concept of lifting channel, which is an important concept in quantum information theory. We also present numerical simulation for this quantum-like mental dynamics. It is non-Markovian by its nature. Stabilization to the steady state solution (determining subjective probabilities for decision making) is based on the collective effect of mental fluctuations collected in the working memory of a decision maker. (C) 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

In cognitive psychology, some experiments of games were reported [1, 2, 3, 4], and these demonstrated that real players did not use the "rational strategy" provided by classical game theory. To discuss probabilities of such "irrational choice", recently, we proposed a decision-making model which is based on the formalism of quantum mechanics [5, 6, 7, 8]. In this paper, we briefly explain the above model and calculate the probability of irrational choice in several prisoner's dilemma (PD) games.

We develop a quantum-like (QL) model of cellular evolution based on the theory of open quantum systems and entanglement between epigenetic markers in a cell. This approach is applied to modeling of epigenetic evolution of cellular populations. We point out that recently experimental genetics discovered numerous phenomena of cellular evolution adaptive to the pressure of the environment. In such phenomena epigenetic changes are fixed in one generation and, hence, the Darwinian natural selection model cannot be applied. A number of prominent genetists stress the Lamarckian character of epigenetic evolution. In quantum physics the dynamics of the state of a system (e.g. electron) contacting with an environment (bath) is described by the theory of open quantum systems. Therefore it is natural to apply this theory to model adaptive changes in the epigenome. Since evolution of the Lamarckian type is very rapid – changes in the epigenome have to be inherited in one generation – we have to find a proper mathematical description of such a speed up. In our model this is the entanglement of different epigenetic markers.

We present a very general model of epigenetic evolution unifying (neo-)Darwinian and (neo-)Lamarckian viewpoints. The evolution is represented in the form of adaptive dynamics given by the quantum(-like) master equation. This equation describes development of the information state of epigenome under the pressure of an environment. We use the formalism of quantum mechanics in the purely operational framework. (Hence, our model has no direct relation to quantum physical processes inside a cell.) Thus our model is about probabilities for observations which can be done on epigenomes and it does not provide a detailed description of cellular processes. Usage of the operational approach provides a possibility to describe by one model all known types of cellular epigenetic inheritance.

This chapter reviews quantum(-like) information biology (QIB). Here biology is treated widely as even covering cognition and its derivatives: psychology and decision making, sociology, and behavioral economics and finances. QIB provides an integrative description of information processing by bio-systems at all scales of life: from proteins and cells to cognition, ecological and social systems. Mathematically QIB is based on the theory of adaptive quantum systems (which covers also open quantum systems). Ideologically QIB is based on the quantum-like (QL) paradigm: complex bio-systems process information in accordance with the laws of quantum information and probability. This paradigm is supported by plenty of statistical bio-data collected at all bio-scales. QIB reflects the two fundamental principles: a) adaptivity; and, b) openness (bio-systems are fundamentally open). In addition, quantum adaptive dynamics provides the most generally possible mathematical representation of these principles.

We discuss foundational issues of quantum information biology (QIB)-one of the most successful applications of the quantum formalism outside of physics. QIB provides a multi-scale model of information processing in bio-systems: from proteins and cells to cognitive and social systems. This theory has to be sharply distinguished from "traditional quantum biophysics". The latter is about quantum bio-physical processes, e.g., in cells or brains. QIB models the dynamics of information states of bio-systems. We argue that the information interpretation of quantum mechanics (its various forms were elaborated by Zeilinger and Brukner, Fuchs and Mermin, and D' Ariano) is the most natural interpretation of QIB. Biologically QIB is based on two principles: (a) adaptivity; (b) openness (bio-systems are fundamentally open). These principles are mathematically represented in the framework of a novel formalism- quantum adaptive dynamics which, in particular, contains the standard theory of open quantum systems.

In this paper we apply the quantum-like (QL) approach to microbiology to present an operational description of the complex process of diauxie in Escherichia coil. We take as guaranteed that dynamics in cells is adaptive, i.e., it depends crucially on the microbiological context. This very general assumption is sufficient to appeal to quantum and more general QL probabilistic models. The next step is to find the operational representation - by operators in complex Hilbert space (as in quantum physics). To determine QL operators, we used the statistical data from Inada et al. (1996). To improve the QL-representation, we needed better experimental data. Corresponding experiments were recently done by two of the authors and in this paper we use these new data. In these data we found that biochemical context of precultivation of populations of E. coli plays a crucial role in E. coli preferences with respect to sugars. Hence, the form of the QL operator representing lactose operon activation also depends crucially on precultivation. One of our results is decomposition of the lactose operon activation operator to extract the factor determined by precultivation. The QL operational approach developed in this paper can be used not only for description of the process of diauxie in E. coli, but also other processes of gene expression. However, new experimental statistical data are demanded. (C) 2012 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Recently, we proposed a new method to compute probabilities which do not satisfy basic law in classical probability theory. In this note, we analyze glucose effect in Escherichia coli's growth with the method, and we show an invariant quantity which Escherichia coli has.

There exist several phenomena breaking the classical probability laws. The systems related to such phenomena are context-dependent, so that they are adaptive to other systems. In this paper, we present a new mathematical formalism to compute the joint probability distribution for two event-systems by using concepts of the adaptive dynamics and quantum information theory, e.g., quantum channels and liftings. In physics the basic example of the context-dependent phenomena is the famous double-slit experiment. Recently similar examples have been found in biological and psychological sciences. Our approach is an extension of traditional quantum probability theory, and it is general enough to describe aforementioned contextual phenomena outside of quantum physics.

We apply theory of open quantum systems to modeling of epigenetic evolution. This is an attempt to unify Darwinian and Lamarckian viewpoints on evolution on the basis of a quantum-like model. The state of uncertainty of cell's epigenome is resolved to a stable and inherited epigenetic configuration. This process of evolution and stabilization is described by the quantum master equation (the Gorini-Kossakowski-Sudarshan-Lindblad equation). The initial state of epigenome starting interaction with a new environment is represented as a pure quantum state. It evolves to a steady state solution of the quantum master equation given by a diagonal density matrix. The latter represents the state resulting from a series of epimutations induced by the environment. We use the information interpretation of the wave function which was elaborated by C. Fuchs and A. Zeilinger.

Differentiation is a universal process found in various phenomena of nature. As seen in the example of cell differentiation, the creation diversity on individual's character is caused by environmental interactions. In this paper, we try to explain its mechanism, which has been discussed mainly in Biology, by using the formalism of quantum physics. Our approach known as quantum bioinformatics shows that the temporal change of statistical state called decoherence fits to describe non-local phenomena like differentiation. (C) 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.