Användandet av materialet trä i produkter är ett lån från naturen som förr eller senare genom nedbrytning av vedsubstansen ska återföras till det naturliga kretsloppet. Avseende användningen av solitt trä i produkter bestäms tidsperioden innan återföringen till naturen av produktens konstruktion och trämaterialet i sig självt i relation till den omgivande miljön samt användningen och hanteringen av produkten. En produkts förmåga att motstå, eller behålla sina egenskaper trots dessa yttre påfrestningar benämns dess beständighet.

The heartwood and sapwood from Scots pine (PS), Norway spruce (PA), and Oriental spruce (PO) were tested for susceptibility to discoloring fungi and water uptake. In addition, annual ring width and density were measured. The methods used were Mycologg for testing growth of fungi and a modified version of EN 927-5 to investigate water uptake. For pine, the heartwood showed a lower water uptake and no discoloring fungi growing in the tests. The heartwood had a significantly higher density and smaller annual ring width than the sapwood. In PA the heartwood had significantly lower discoloration than sapwood. The total water uptake in g/m² was significantly higher in sapwood, but not the calculated moisture content. As for wood properties, the density was significantly higher in sapwood compared to heartwood, although there were no differences in annual ring width. Regarding PO, differences in water uptake could be seen between sapwood and heartwood although the densities were similar. These results show that susceptibility to discoloring fungi and water uptake is hard to correlate to a single inherent property when looking at different wood species.

The concept of productivity is often used to determine how well resources are used in an operation, and it is usually determined as the ratio of what is consumed in the production. Laminated veneer products are considered complicated products often taking complex shapes, using a raw material with high variation, and requiring machining processes that create scrap material that needs to be handled. Therefore, maintaining high productivity in industries producing such products may become challenging. This study reports on productivity measurements in a production cell consisting of an adhesive, pressing and a processing station. The study seeks to increase the understanding of production-related problems in this industry. This research has been based on productivity measurement as well as on interactive discussions between researchers and workers. Measurement of cycle times indicated bottlenecks in the processing cell. The discussion led via cycle times, processing residues and chatter marks to an examination of the foundation and rigidity of the CNC-machine in the processing cell. The study indicated that the performance of the CNC machine did not correspond to expectations. The machine was too weak to handle the required output in an efficient manner. Thus, there is a need to determine the performance expected before a machine or machine group is purchased. An update of the existing purchasing literature and its dissemination will support the crystallization of the purchasing process as a way forward to support the industry.

To ensure success in the production of laminated veneer products, it is necessary to acquire a sound basic understanding of the behaviour of the wood, and to understand the inherent reactions of wood to adhesive, heat, moisture, strain and stress. This can ensure an efficient wood utilization and promote the development of new processes and products that take advantage of the visco-elastic nature of wood.

A shortcoming of the laminated bending process is that the products may become distorted after moulding and during use. In this study, we have examined how the performance of laminated veneer products can be improved through the implementation of basic knowledge of wood in the design and production process.

The results show that the material and process parameters and storage in a changing relative humidity have a clear impact on distortion. Fibre orientation of the veneers in the moulded assembly was the most critical parameter to control. Fibre deviations mainly resulted in twist of the product. A moisture content in one veneer deviating from that of the rest of the veneers in the assembly before moulding resulted in distortion of the laminated veneer products both after moulding and during use. To decrease the negative effect of fibre orientation and moisture content on shape stability, the veneer should be straight-grained and well-conditioned to a moisture level adapted to the use of the final product. Special care should also be taken to orientate the veneers during assembly before moulding.

There is an increasing need to update and correct information about product geometry in the wood manufacturing industry. Changes in machinery or personnel can be the cause of that need. Manual measurement takes time and diff erent ways of digitizing the geometry of the products have therefore been developed.

In this study, two methods (3D-coordinate measurement and optical scanning) have been tested together in order to determine the position of a product in relation to the processing machine, and to optically scan the product geometry. The aim was to identify and evaluate methods to digitize product geometry into a CAD-model for the wood industry. Th e seat shell measured was fitted in the CNC-machine where the processing later would be performed.

The methodology used has made it possible to create a CAD-model from the physical model. Based on the experience from this methodology, it would be recommended to continue by creating of a tool that minimizes the need for after processing, i.e. the adjustment of certain coordinates manually.

Laminated bending of veneers mean that dried, thin veneers or thin wood sheets are glued together under influence of pressure and eventually increased temperature. At the same time the product is given its desired shape, most often curved. This thermo hydro mechanical process offers several benefits. For example thick bends of small radiuses of any species of wood may be formed and poor quality wood containing knots, splits and other defects may be utilised. Laminated bends can usually be set more readily and made to conform better to the shape of the form than similar bends of solid wood. Further no softening treatment is generally required before the pieces are bent. However, there are also disadvantages e.g. more technical skill and better equipment are usually required than for solid wood bending. The presence of glue may be somewhat detrimental to the machines used for the final cleaning up of the bent pieces. Further the glue lines which are usually visible on the sides may be an aesthetical unappreciated effect [1],[2].The quality of the laminated bended veneer products are obtained as an interaction between the process, the veneers and the glue [3]. In industries designing and producing these products it is of interest to obtain better understanding of how processing- and material parameters affect the product quality. With an improved understanding of the material and processing parameters it may be possible to increase the efficiency of wood utilisation and promote the development of new processes and products that manipulate the viscoelastic nature of wood. In particular the possibilities to obtain narrower radius of curvature and better possibilities of bending in more than one plane would be advantageous.This study has focused on the moisture content (MC) and the grain angle orientation in the veneers. These two specific aspects were assumed to have a great influence on spring-back and distortions of the laminated bended veneer products. Spring-back and distortions were therefore studied in separate tests where MC and the grain angle orientation was varied separately in manufactured laminated bended wood products. After manufacturing the products were exposed to variations in humidity and temperature whereupon the spring-back and distortions were measuredThree tests were performed. For the first and the second test a seat shell was selected as test product, figure 1a. To the third test another product was selected, figure 1b. This product was a small bookshelf. The company producing this shelf had experienced large problems considering distortions of this product. Further the product was very simple in shape with only one bend and therefore suitable for measurements.In the first test the influence of MC of the veneers was investigated. In the second and third test the influence of grain angle of the veneers was studied.For the study veneers of birch and beech were selected in the production. For the first and third study only birch veneers were used. The veneers were initially conditioned to equilibrium moisture contents (EMC) according to setups in different test groups. For the first study a test group was also built up from veneers taken directly out of production to study the industrial conditions. The seat shells in this test group contained veneers conditioned to EMC 4 %, except for the surface veneers that had been stored in the production hall. The humidity and temperature conditions in this room corresponded to MC 7 %.The manufacturing of the products were performed in industrial conditions. In the tests the products were built up from a number of veneers and the studied factors were varied between the veneers in a controlled manner.The results from the first test showed that the MC of the veneers influenced the spring-back and the distortions. A large moisture gradient between veneers and especially unsymmetrical placements of these in the construction were especially critical. The results from the second and third tests showed that grain angle deviation has large effect on the distortions of the products. Even a small grain angle deviation as in study two (5°) resulted in large problems with distortions. The study also showed that when crossing two or more veneers with deviating grain angles there were cases when these faults interacted and multiplied the distortions. In production grain angle deviations can be a result of inaccurate placement of the veneers during pressing, incorrect cutting of the veneers, inherent from the growth of the tree or a combination of these factors. Deviations of the grain angle were, however, shown to have only small effects on spring-back.

Laminated veneer products consist of veneers bonded together with adhesive into a predetermined shape. Since wood is a hygroscopic material and also anisotropic by nature, laminated veneer products are especially shape-sensitive to changes in moisture content. A deviation from the intended shape is a problem for both the manufacturers and users of the final products and annually such deviations cause great economic losses in the manufacturing industry.

To illustrate the influence of moisture on distortion and shape stability, studies have been performed in industrial conditions and in a laboratory environment. Veneers of beech and birch and a seat shell moulded from these veneers were used in the study. Distortion, i.e. spring-back, position and twist, has been determined directly after moulding and during subsequent moisture and drying cycles.

The distortion follows more or less slavishly the changes in relative humidity around the product. The distortion is generally small directly after moulding but, after the laminates have been exposed to a variation in relative humidity, the distortion increases. Some of the problems of poor shape stability that may arise later in the bending process can be reduced if attention is paid to moisture content and fibre orientation already in the production of the veneer.

To achieve good shape stability of laminated veneer products in practice, the following should be followed by the manufacture industry:

• develop      cooperation with suppliers of veneer and set requirements of veneer with regard      to deviation of the fibre orientation, and require that the veneer be dried      and conditioned to a moisture content consistent with production,
• control      incoming veneers with respect to fibre orientation and moisture content,
• plan warehousing      of veneers and ensure adequate conditioning, and
• consider      the orientation of the veneers and the species.

Laminated bending of veneers is a common used and important process for manufacture of components primarily for furniture and interior purposes. According to the use, such products are in general very sensitive to variations in the intended shape, i.e. distortion can be of great problem and more or less destroy the use of the final product. The most critical mode of distortion is twist, but also other changes in shape may be of interest to keep low. The causes to distortion of laminated bended veneer products can be of material (veneer, adhesive and the combination of these), design, processes and climate nature and there is a challenge to know which parameters which are of major importance for distortion, both directly after moulding and when the products are in use.

In this study, the influence of type of UF-adhesive hardener, i.e. liquid or powder, water content of adhesive, adhesive distribution, variation of moisture content of glued veneers, and fibre orientation of veneers, on twist and position for a 3D-veneer construction (a chair seat shell) has been studied. Distortion, i.e. twist and position, has been determined directly after moulding and after moisture cycling. The moisture cycling was to simulate and accelerate conditions that the shells are subjected in use. The aim of the work is to study how the above mentioned material and process parameters influence the shape stability of the products.

The results show that the climate, i.e. how a certain level of temperature and relative humidity influence the moisture content of the moulded product, has a clear impact on the distortion of the product in use. An increase in moisture content results in a significant increase in distortion and vice versa. The level to which the moulded products distort during climate variation can be controlled through controlling material, design and process parameter during moulding. Of the studied parameter mentioned above, a deviation in fibre orientation of the veneers in the moulded assembly is the most critical parameter to have under control to minimize distortion. The fibre deviation mainly results in an increase in twist. A high moisture content of a veneer vis-à-vis the rest of the veneers in the assembly before moulding, will result in increased position and twist of the moulded product in use. The difference of moisture content between veneers and the position of veneers with high moisture content in the assembly will influence the level of distortion. Other studied parameter also influences the distortion to a lesser extent and can in these cases be related to the moisture distribution in the mouldings.

A shortcoming of the laminated bending process is that the products may become distorted after moulding and during use. Annually, significant financial losses have incurred in the furniture and interior design industries as a result of distorted products. In this study, we have examined the influence of deviation of fibre orientation of individual veneers on distortion of a moulded shell to find ways to improve shape stability of laminated veneer products.

Ninety cross-laminated shells, consisting of 7 veneers of Birch (Betula pubescens Ehrh.) with a total thickness of 3.6 mm, were studied. The in-plane dimensions of the veneer were 400x660 mm. All the veneers were straight-grained, but to simulate deviation in fibre orientation some of the individual veneers were oriented 7 degrees relative to the main orientation of the other veneers in the laminate. Distortion was determined directly after moulding and after storage in a changing relative humidity.

The results show the well-known fact that deviation of fibre orientation of the veneers in the laminate influences the shape stability of the product. The results from this study, however, also show how the placement of the abnormal veneers in the laminated veneer products influences the degree of distortions. From this basic knowledge some improvements for production of laminated veneer products were suggested.

Productivity is often used to determine how well resources are used for an operation. Most often, the ratio of what is produced to what is required to produce it determines productivity. Laminated veneer products are considered complicated products often with complex shapes, a raw material with high variation, and machining processes that create scrap materials that need to be handled. Therefore, keeping a high productivity in the industries producing such products may become challenging. This study reports productivity measurements in a production cell consisting of an adhesive, pressing and processing station. The study seeks to increase understanding of production-related problems in this industry. The research has been using productivity measurement as well as interactive discussions between researchers and workers.

Measurement of downtime causes were made for 20 days, for a total of approximately 300 hours. The production cell had 1,299 minutes of stops. Of those, 450 minutes were one-time events. The rest were intermittent disturbances. Many of them could be explained by the dust-laden air and processing residues but were also related to veneer and adhesive. There is a need for determining material and processing parameters; however, the first priority is cleaning the factory.

From a social perspective, some other issues must be added to the discussion of this paper. First and foremost, the business has gone through a transformation from a family business to a privately held firm. From the non-family employee’s view, this is a huge change. This has resulted in unclear roles and responsibilities within the company, which has also affected the productivity of the company.

There is a growing need and market for temporary buildings for various purposes, including largeconstruction projects in the tourism and events sectors or in civil protection. This paper gives an overview about the useof reusable lightweight materials in temporary buildings. Based on a project proposal submitted to the 7th framework, anew concept of temporary buildings is proposed. This concept combines the advantages of the premanufacturing of asmall number of parts and wooden components and a flexible and modular erection of the temporary building. Thefocus is on fast establishment with a maximum of three persons. A flexible and modular extension is possible.Assembling and disassembling the individual components with novel connect systems, adapted from the furnitureindustry, is proposed.This project aims to bring these concepts into new temporary buildings with new, reusable, and flexible lightweightdesign.

One of the most important quality aspects of a laminated veneer product is its shape stability under changing relative humidity (RH). This study aimed to establish an understanding of how the orientation of individual veneers in the laminate, i.e., orientation according to fibre orientation and orientation of the loose (the side with ‘lathe checks’) or tight side of the veneer, affects the shape stability. Three-ply laminates from peeled veneers of beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) were studied. The four types of laminate were the following: loose sides of all veneers in the same direction (cross and parallel centre ply) and loose sides of the outer veneers facing inward (cross and parallel centre ply). Four replicates of each type yielded 16 samples. The samples were exposed to RH cycling at 20% and 85% RH at 20°C, and the shapes of the samples were determined. The shape stability was influenced by the veneer orientation. Laminations with the middle veneer perpendicular to the top and bottom veneer (cross-laminated) showed the best shape stability, especially when the loose sides of the veneers were oriented the same direction. In parallel-laminated veneers, the laminates with opposite directions of the loose sides in the two outermost veneers showed the best shape stability. The major explanation of the behaviour of the laminates is that the loose side expanded more than the tight side from the dry to the humid climate, which was shown by optical 3D deformation analysis (ARAMIS^TM). After RH cycling, the laminates with cross plies showed visible surface checks only when the tight side was facing outwards.

A major problem in the manufacture of three-dimensional laminated veneer products (LVP) isdamage due to stretching and/or buckling of the veneer. To reduce or eliminate this problem, veneerdensification or adding a strengthening layer to the veneer can be an alternative. To study how veneermodification influences the veneer-to-adhesive bond strength, three methods of modification werestudied in relation to an unmodified reference veneer: (1) densified veneer, (2) veneer pre-bonded withpaper and hot melt adhesive (HMA), (3) veneer pre-bonded with non-woven polypropylene (NW)fabric glued to the veneer (a) with a urea formaldehyde (UF) adhesive, (b) with a mixture of UF andpolyvinyl acetate (PVAc) adhesive, and (c) with a PVAc adhesive. Densification, pre-bonding withpaper, and NW with UF/PVAc adhesive mixture resulted in no or only a slight decrease in strength ofthe bond-line compared to the reference. NW glued with UF or PVAc adhesive showed a considerablereduction in the strength of the bond-line. The climatic cycling had no significant influence on the bondstrength.

In this paper, a new method of measuring slicing checks for flat-sliced veneers was evaluated. The method is based on image analysis of veneer cross-sections, having highlighted the slicing checks using surface staining. The segmentation of the checks consists of global thresholding followed by some morphological operations. The outputs of the algorithm are check depth ratio and check frequency. The method was tested on flat-sliced oak (Quercus robur L. and Quercus petraea (Matt). Liebl.) veneers of different thicknesses (1.5, 2.5, 3.5 and 4.5 mm). Two distinct wood qualities and two different cutting directions (lengthwise-sliced and plain-sliced veneers) were evaluated. The algorithm performance resulted in an overall accuracy of 85% enabling an accessible method for relatively fast and accurate measurements of slicing check characteristics in lamella cross-sections. Regression analysis indicated a lack of fixed bias but the presence of proportional bias with the presented method. Check measurements indicate that by varying cutting parameters, it is possible to achieve desired check characteristics independent of slicing thickness. The semi-automated slicing check detection method could benefit further research and optimisation of the slicing process parameters and pave the way towards industrial quality control of slicing checks. The intended area of application is veneer-laminated products for interior use with the focus on veneered wood flooring.

Oak (Quercus spp.) is generally preferred wood species as surface material in flooring products realization. The presence of defects such as cracks limits the utilization of the raw material and ultimately, limits the competitiveness of wood in the flooring market when compared to other materials.

The objective of this study was to develop the theoretical aspects for crack-type identification based on the appearance of the sawn top-layer lamellas and evaluate the influence of crack occurrence on the quality of flooring top-lamellas.

The results of this study provide an insight for crack-type identification on the surface of oak (Quercus spp.) flooring top-lamellas and wood quality optimisation aspects.

Oak (Quercus ssp.) is generally preferred wood species as surface material in flooring products realization. The presence of defects such as cracks limits the utilization of the raw material and ultimately, limits the competitiveness of wood in the flooring market when compared to other materials. The objective of this study was to develop the theoretical aspects for crack-type identification based on the appearance of the sawn top-layer lamellas and evaluate the influence of crack occurrence on the quality of flooring top-lamellas. The results of this study provide an insight for crack-type identification on the surface of oak (Quercus ssp.) flooring top-lamellas and wood quality optimisation aspects.

The performance of multi-layered wood flooring produced with sliced and sawn top-layers was evaluated in this study. Slicing checks side orientation was evaluated by pressing the veneers with checks side oriented upwards and/or downwards the flooring surface. The performance of  produced flooring boards were evaluated using a climate chamber test with regard to the dimensional stability (SS-EN:1910) and appearance. Delamination resistance was tested according to the ANSI delamination testing procedures. Results of the climate chamber test revealed immerging of a high amount of slicing checks to the surface of parquet boards after the first dry cycle. Checks tend to be larger around knots. Checking was qualitatively assessed as being more severe on the boards with checks side up. Dimensional stability was assessed to be slightly better for the sliced top-layers compared to the sawn ones. Parquet elements produced with  veneers checks side facing downwards had poor delamination resistance. The best results regarding delamination resistance was achieved when using sliced lamellas with the checks side facing up

Surface-checking is a significant quality issue of veneer and sliced lamellae-based wood products. This study explores how surface-checking in sliced lamellae-based engineered wood Flooring (EWF) is influenced by two key structure parameters: core type and top-layer thickness. The core types assessed were a standard solid wood lamellae with a veneer back-end layer (S), a standard solid wood lamellae core with veneer back-end layers on the two sides (DS), and a single-layer oriented strand board (OS) core. The EWF element's top-layer lamellae were plain sliced at nominal dimensions of 1.5, 2.5, 3.5, and 4.5 mm from freshly sawn slabs of European oak (Quercus spp.). The surface-checking of EWF specimens was quantified based on a digital image correlation (DIC) method, which outputs a surface-checking index. The surface-checking results were evaluated using a Tweedie compound Poisson data distribution to fit a general linear model. The model evaluated the impact of individual factors, sliced lamellae thickness and core type, and their interaction. The checking index confidence intervals were estimated using a bootstrapping technique. Findings reveal a significant interaction between studied factors and provide insight into optimizing top-layer thickness and core construction to diminish surface-checking. A low sliced lamella thickness on standard solid wood lamellae core resulted in low surface-checking, deemed relevant for further research.

The mechanical properties of sliced lamellae are critical for structural and decorative engineered wood products. This study evaluates the impact of slicing thickness on the tensile mechanical properties of plain oak (Quercus robur L. and Quercus petraea L.) sliced lamellae, perpendicular to the grain direction. The mechanical performance parameters in terms of the modulus of rupture (MOR), strain at break, and modulus of elasticity (MOE), were analysed using a one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and contrast analysis. Our findings indicate that slicing thickness substantially affects the mechanical properties of the modulus of rupture and strain at break, whilst the modulus of elasticity was somewhat independent of the slicing thickness. The mean MOR value increased from 0.8 to 1.43 N mm(-2) for an increase in the sliced lamellae thickness from 1.5 to 4.5 mm. The strain at break increased, on average, from 1.37 to 2.64% for an increase in the sliced lamellae thickness from 1.5 to 4.5 mm. The MOE was approximately 100-120 N mm(-2), indicating a substantially reduced stiffness compared to other sliced lamellae species and solid oak reported values. The slicing check depth ratio diminished from approximately 69% to 50% for an increase in the sliced lamellae thickness from 1.5 mm to 4.5 mm. These findings indicate a negative correlation between the slicing check depth ratio and the tensile performance perpendicular to the grain, suggesting the importance of obtaining an optimal slicing quality. This study employs digital image correlation (DIC) analysis to gain insights into the fracture mechanisms of the tested sliced lamellae and provides an alternative method for strain and stress measuring. The DIC analysis highlighted the role of slicing checks in the stress concentration and ultimate failure areas. This research provides insights into the fracture behaviour of sliced lamellae that are perpendicular to the grain, which is critical for the performance of both structural and decorative products.

The lack of quantitative methods for surface-checking measurements may hinder improving the product characteristics of engineered wood flooring products built with sliced top-layer lamellae. This study evaluated the digital image correlation method for its applicability to surface checking measurements in engineered wood flooring elements with the top-layer comprising the plain sliced lamellae of oak (Quercus spp.) species with nominal thicknesses of 1.5–4.5 mm. The method involves observing full-field surface displacements of the sliced lamellae-based wood flooring specimens subjected to an accelerated sorption/desorption cycle. Detection of surface checks relates to discontinuities in surface displacements which can be interpreted from the output strain data as strain peak regions. Additionally, a surface-checking index was defined to describe the extension of surface-checking. Exposure tests were performed on a combination of coating presence and a different number of testing cycles. The main findings provide insight into the method procedure parameters, such as exposure duration, climate conditions, analysis parameters and recommendations regarding the digital image correlation setup settings and specimen manufacturing.

Forest operations involve several different actors. Each actor imposes their own requirements on the harvester in relation to their differing roles in the industry, whether they are concerned with the harvester itself, information, environmental concerns, etc. The manufacturers of harvesters need to meet the requirements imposed by multiple actors, among them logging contractors, whose survival depends on their harvesters. This paper aims to identify the present drivers of product development and describe the roles of the actors who have been identified as those currently affecting the development of harvesters. A multiple-case study of harvester manufacturers was conducted. In total, 4 cases were studied. Each case was comprised of five interviewees: two from each harvesting manufacturer, two logging contractors, and one dealer. Following 20 interviews and 3 validation interviews (with experts from both the industry and academia), the paper concludes that the present drivers of product development of harvesters are legislators, logging contractors, and expert and research organizations. Harvester manufacturers appear to develop harvesters aligned with requirements coming from both logging contractors and legislators. Logging contractors are the primary customers, and they prioritize requirements that reduce cost and improve work environments. Legislators, and expert and research organizations are supporting development in relation to current regulations.

For most companies and organizations there is a need to employ graduates with interdisciplinary skills. Hence it becomes important for universities and teaching institutions to graduate students with this knowledge. At the same time there is need for universities and teaching institutions to position itself in relation to its competitors. This is an apparent challenge for universities and teaching institutions, as developing and offering interdisciplinary programs requires them to break the normal traditional university structure involving different faculties applying different operating models. However, by succeeding with this, universities will create a competitive advantage over their competitors.

At Linnaeus University, Sweden, an interdisciplinary program called Innovation through Business, Engineering and Design involving three faculties has been developed.  The program was initiated in 2011 and began in 2014 with 15 students. The program is dimensioned for about 30 students, ten from each faculty. This paper reports on the realization of the program and the resources needed to do this. Knowing the resource requirements is necessary in order to make correct decisions regarding program development and to avoid decisions on invalid grounds. Knowing the activities to be performed is an essential pre-requisite for resource planning. Consequently the purpose of this paper is to identify organization roles and activities as well as the resources required in order to realize an interdisciplinary program.

The paper is empirical in nature and data has been collected using interactive research. Interactive research stresses the researchers (i.e. the authors) joint learning together with other members of the development group and the other actors involved. 

The paper concludes that in order for a realization to take place organizational roles (such as project leader and product coordinators), and activities such as creating deliverable document and schedule are necessary. The differences between a single-disciplinary program and a multidisciplinary program lies rather in the complexity and time management of performing the activities needed then in the actual performing. There is primarily a need for human capital, as the suitable faculty members are needed, as well as there is a need financial capital.

By covering interiors, such as walls, ceilings and floors, with wooden surfaces, one can change the quality of indoor environments and thereby affect both psychological and physiological responses. Psychological responses refer to individuals’ emotional reactions toward interiors, while physiological responses include changes in the activity of the brain, the autonomic nervous system, the endocrine system, and the immune system. The above-mentioned responses considered in this study are those caused by visual, auditory, olfactory and tactile stimulation from interior wooden surfaces. Although earlier studies have presented valuable information on this subject, questions remain about the material properties of wood which are associated with the stimulation. Specifying the material properties can support architects, designers and engineers who intend to use wood in interiors for improving psychological and physiological responses. A literature study therefore has been conducted to determine (i) the material properties of wood which are associated with sensory stimulation, and (ii) to specify relevant recommendations or requirements which should be fulfilled when covering interiors with wooden surfaces. The results show a lack of knowledge regarding the material properties of wood and the degree in which it affects sensory stimulation.

The selection of the most appropriate window and blind design is a challenging task due to the existence of potential conflicts between visual comfort, thermal comfort, energy consumption and life cycle cost. Resolving these conflicts relies on a trade-off window and blind design. This research applied a decision-making framework to select a trade-off window and blind design for an office room in Sweden. The decision-making framework was developed based on integrating the non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II and the analytical hierarchy process. The first step in the application of the framework was to generate a model of the office room using EnergyPlus. Six types of window and four types of blind; an internal venetian blind, an internal roller curtain, an external venetian blind and an external overhang panel, were modelled in EnergyPlus. The second step was to run an optimisation using non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II. For this purpose, various window and blind design variables were specified in modeFRONTIER platform. The third and last step in the application of the decision-making framework was to select a trade-off window and blind design using analytical hierarchy process. The results show the strength of the decision-making framework in selecting a trade-off design, and thereby the ability to resolve conflicts through intelligent use of simulation in analyzing big-data in built environment, energy and cost sectors. Since, the computation and processing power for performing simulations is constantly increasing, architects and designers can exploit the decision-making framework and locate a trade-off design in a relatively short period of time.

Swedish government adopted national targets to reduce total energy consumption and mitigate environmental impacts. At this point, detached houses play an important role, since they account for a large share of dwelling stock in this country. The majority of these buildings are affected by technical deteriorations in building envelopes and heating, ventilation and air condition systems. Accordingly, there is a need for a deep renovation strategy, which covers both energy efficiency measures and economic issues. Additionally, a deep renovation can improve indoor climate, which contributes to the enhanced health and wellbeing. Thus, the aim of this study is to compare the efficiency of eight different renovation packages in reducing energy consumption and providing economic benefits in a detached house in Sweden. The renovation packages include 1) improving the U-value of building envelopes; 2) adding a heat recovery for ventilation system; 3) installing a ground source heat pomp for supporting heat demand and domestic hot water; 4) combination of renovation package 1 and 2; 5) combination of renovation package 1 and 3; 6) combination of renovation package 2 and 3; 7) combination of renovation package 1, 2 and 3; and 8) combination of renovation package 1, 2, 3 along with installing photovoltaic cells for producing electricity. The reduction in energy consumption was calculated in kWh/m². year for each renovation package, while the economic benefit was obtained by calculating the payback period during a lifespan of 50 years and internal rate of return with interest rates of 1%, 3% and 6%. The results indicate that renovation package 8 has the highest potential in reducing total energy consumption, while renovation package 3 is the most profitable solution since it provides the shortest payback period with the highest internal rate of return. The results help to define and project efficient energy policies in Sweden.

Sweden has an ambitious target to attain 50% more efficient energy use by 2030. Improving the energy performance of buildings provides a great opportunity to achieve the above-mentioned target. At this point, windows play a substantial role in improving indoor environmental quality and reducing energy consumption and cost. A computer-based system was therefore developed, which allows selecting a suitable window design. The computer-based system was intended to be used in a large-sized window and door manufacturing company in Sweden. However, the benefits of implementing the computer-based system cannot be realized until users accept using it. Former literature employed the technology acceptance model to investigate the influence of external variables on cognitive beliefs and trace their effects on users’ intention and actual system use. A successful application of TAM relies on the specification of the external variable. Accordingly, this paper conducted a systematic literature review to determine the external variable, affecting users' acceptance, thereby extended TAM. The analyses of results showed that organizational, individual, technological and environmental characteristics were the most influential external variables when investigating determinants of users' acceptance toward a computer-based system. Organizational characteristics contained mainly top management support, training, organizational culture, and organizational size, while individual characteristics embraced users’ previous knowledge and experience. Technological characteristics comprised information quality and system quality, meanwhile environmental characteristics included fulfillment of regulations and competitiveness. The extended TAM overcomes limitations attributed to the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology model since it considers attitude as direct determinants of intentions. In addition, the extended TAM is advantageous when compared with technology, organization, environment framework, because it has clear constructs, which allows tracing the influence of external variables on cognitive beliefs, and thereby their effects on users’ intention and actual system use. The extended TAM will be used to investigate determinants of users’ acceptance of the computer-based system in the manufacturing company in Sweden and compare the effect of external variables on users' acceptance.

Window blinds have a substantial role in shaping the energy consumption and improving thermal comfort and visual comfort. However, difficulties in selecting a window blind remain, due to existence of potential conflicts between visual, thermal, energy and life cycle cost. To overcome this problem, this study evaluates the performance of interior blinds, including venetian with slat of 0° and 45°, roller and double pleated blinds with respect to visual, thermal, energy and life cycle cost. Later, the Analytical hierarchy method (AHP) is used for selecting the best blind based on trade-off among the visual, thermal, energy and life cycle cost. In using AHP, visual comfort is determined as most important objective with a weight of 52%. The results show that venetian blind with slat of 0° drawn 100% is the trade-off blind. Accomplishing the sensitivity analysis on blinds’ global weight shows that venetian blind with slat of 0° drawn 100% remains the trade-off blind until the weight of energy and life cycle cost is below 37% and 57% respectively and the weight of visual comfort is above 4%. However, changing thermal comfort weight has no impact on ranking of the blinds. This study shows the capability of AHP in managing the conflicts.

Windows and blinds play a significant role in both shaping energy consumption and enhancing indoor comfort. But there are still difficulties with selecting windows and blinds due to the existence of potential conflicts between visual comfort, thermal comfort, energy consumption and life cycle cost. A literature review was conducted with the purpose of developing a decision-making framework that resolves the conflicts, and allows selecting a window and blind design based on trade-off between visual comfort, thermal comfort, energy consumption and life cycle cost. The decision-making framework was developed by integrating non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm-II as an optimisation algorithm with analytical hierarchy process as a multi-criteria decision-making method. The optimisation algorithm considers different window and blind design variables and analyses multiple designs, while the multi-criteria decision-making method ranks the optimization results and selects a trade-off design. An operating package enabled the decision-making framework to be automated. The operating package was obtained by coupling EnergyPlus as a simulation tool and modeFRONTIER as an integration platform. The decision-making framework was developed to select a trade-off window and blind design through intelligent use of simulation in analysing big-data in built environment, energy and cost sectors. Application of the framework ensures the minimum visual and thermal comfort thresholds with the lowest energy demand and cost. Architects and designers can use the framework during the design or renovation phase of residential and commercial buildings.

Sweden passed legislation to achieve a target of net zero greenhouse gas emissions by the end of 2045. The Energy Performance of Building Directive further obliged European countries to ensure zero-energy building codes and improve the quality of indoor environments when buildings are renovated, as approximately 40% of total greenhouse gas emissions in Sweden are produced while heating buildings. Windows currently play a significant role in improving the quality of indoor environments and cutting total energy consumption, thereby reducing greenhouse gas emissions and mitigating environmental impact. Selecting a suitable window design is a complicated task compounded by two main difficulties: i) the availability of multiple window designs, each with a different glazing system, size, form and position; and ii) conflict between visual comfort, thermal comfort and energy consumption. Previous studies have primarily analysed a limited selection of window designs; however, analysing a wide variety of glazing systems, sizes, forms and positions will help resolve the abovementioned difficulties, thereby ensuring zero-energy building codes while improving the quality of an indoor environment. A multi-objective optimization was therefore completed to analyse the performance of a wide variety of window design variables and select suitable designs for an office room in Sweden. The results show the potential of multi-objective optimisation to resolve the difficulties of selecting suitable window designs.

Improving the energy performance of detached houses is expected to play an important role in achieving energy and climate targets in Sweden. The majority of detached houses require energy renovations due to technical deteriorations in heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems approaching the ends of their lives. Renewable energy supply system implementation leads to total energy use reduction. No previous studies provided information regarding how possible climate futures could affect subsidies required to implement these systems. This study compared the performance of an air-to-water heat pump (ASHP), a ground-source heat pump (GSHP), and an integrated system of a ground-source heat pump and photovoltaic solar panels (GSHP-PV) in reducing the total energy use of a detached house, which was initially supplied by an electric boiler. The performances of the supply systems were analysed in regard to three different climate scenarios, following the Special Report of Emissions Scenarios, A2 storyline. The effects of three different interest rates and two different lifetimes on subsidies were also investigated for all three energy supply systems. The GSHP-PV system was the most efficient system, as it secured 97%–100% of the total energy consumption, followed by GSHP and AWHP. The analyses of the results showed that variations in future climate conditions changed the subsidies required to install the supply systems. Furthermore, the results showed that changes in lifetime had greater impact on subsidies than interest rate growth.

Historically, the selection of wood for manufacturing furniture and joinery has been made with great care. The basis has been the un-edged sawn and dried pieces of wood. Alternatively, selection has already been made in the forest. The trained eye and the skilful craftsmen have been crucial for the result. In today’s industrial processes, this methodology is hard to achieve with the non-homogeneous wooden material. This article explores developmental trends considering the work within the Swedish hardwood value chain. The aim of this manuscript is to discover how it is possible to utilize today’s available information technology, e.g. scanners in the industrial process, as a help to make more optimal use of the wooden raw material. Together with customers of a hardwood sawmill, a product was selected and followed backwards in the hardwood value chain. Crosscutting scanner data was collected based on wood origin with known log-quality. The length distribution of crosscut components was simulated based on different quality grading criteria. The results from the study may be used as a help in production planning, in the selling process, or as a tool in product development where raw material accessibility may be determined in relation to the product design.

Swedish hardwood is today used in the energy, pulp and mechanical hardwood industries. Only very small volumes of Swedish hardwood are, however, consumed by the mechanical industry that normally pays the highest timber price. The smallness of the volumes used for mechanical refinement is a result both of forestry not focusing on the production of hardwood for these uses, and of the fact that the mechanical hardwood industry, particularly the sawing industry, is not designed to process the existing raw material in an optimal manner. This thesis discusses the possibilities of improving the conditions for the mechanical refinement of hardwood. The aim of the work has been to investigate the possibilities of developing products and methods for processing of Swedish hardwood.

The thesis proposes a new manufacturing system for Swedish hardwood to better utilize the inherent properties of the wood material. The system is based on the so-called PrimWood Method and the star-sawing concept. Compared to normally sawn wood, the sawing concept utilizes the raw material more efficiently with regard to volume yield, and increases the distance between knots in the sawn wood. The material produced has vertical annual rings which give the wood smaller movements as a result of moisture variations and a different textural appearance. Using the PrimWood Method for hardwood would make it possible to more closely match customer requirements regarding hardwood products.

Since Swedish hardwood is nowadays mainly used indoors, a possible way of expanding the market would be to increase the outdoor use of the material. Here the durability is of great importance, and one important factor is then the capillary characteristics of the material. The thesis therefore focuses on the characterisation of the capillarity in wood for the future improvement of its durability. It is shown that with the material produced by the proposed manufacturing system, i.e. wood with vertical annual rings, the possibility of using hardwood outdoors increases, because the susceptibility to cracking decreases.

This study describes the Swedish hardwood sawmill industry with respect to its structure, raw material, production and market conditions in order to seek ways of increasing the competitiveness of the industry. Fifteen sawmills were studied through observations and interviews. The Swedish hardwood sawmill industry creates job opportunities in sparsely populated areas and uses a biological raw material which is important for environmental biological diversity. Any decrease in the use of this material will mean a drop in the incentive for forest owners to cultivate deciduous forests. Today, the hardwood sawmill industry is experiencing problems in securing the supply of raw material of the desired quality, i.e. without knots and discoloured heartwood (red-heart or brown-heart). To increase the competitiveness of the Swedish hardwood sawmill industry, the raw material supply must be secured. Production should be geared towards products demanded by the market, and new markets need to be entered.

Local increased moisture content (MC) in wood constructions may result in different kinds of mechanical and, especially, biological degrading problems. Therefore, it is of great importance to control the MC of the material. However, there is at present no appropriate method for determining local MC in wood without destroying the product itself. Nondestructive measurements of local MC in wood is significant for the possibility of, for instance, monitoring the in situ MC in wood constructions over time, and thereby predicting potential problems. The nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique has been shown to be valuable for the measurement of MC in wood. In this study, the possibility of utilizing this technique for local MC measurement in wood has been tested on wood samples exposed to water absorption for 72 h. The samples came from three different wood species treated with paint systems available on the market. In the wood samples an artificial “crack” had been created in the paint to introduce an area where the water could easily gain access to the wood. The results show the possibility of using the NMR technique for local MC measurements in wood. The measurement area, however, must be related to the properties of the material. In the case of wood, the measurement spot must be related to the early/latewood proportions. Further, a calibration of the NMR measurement must be made in relation to the expected density variations of the material.

The wood furniture industry in Sweden has an identified need of technological development in order to stay competitive. Especially the necessity to focus on automation has been identified. In the industry there are often needs to handle large levels of customization at the same time as keeping the production effective. This requires flexible automation solutions, often described as automated equipment that can rapidly be reconfigured for new products.Before automated applications are implemented in an industry there are issues to solve related to organisational, human and technological aspects. Based on this, the project - Flexible automation in manufacturing of laminated veneer products was initiated. The project is running since January 1, 2016 and is a two year national Swedish project. The aim of the project is to investigate challenges concerning automation in the wood furniture industry and especially focusing on bended laminated veneer products.In the project a case-study with the aim of identifying factors important for successful automation implementation in an involved wood manufacturing industry was performed. Key persons and staff of the company were asked to tell their life stories and a process mapping of the production was conducted.The results indicate a problematic relation between the management and the production staff, which partly can be referred to the shift from a family business to a private owned firm. Based on the process mapping, internal transport and handling are identified improvement areas. Productivity is disturbed by stops caused by processing residues and poorly defined materials. There is potential for improvement by adapting a process-oriented approach and defining the materials used.The case–study confirms the need to consider organizational and human aspects in production before initiating production. The study concludes the need to consider the special aspects of the wood material in production development.