Untreated wood has excellent environmental benefits due to the lack of treatments; however, its durability needs to be great enough to provide a sufficient service life to not override the environmental benefits. The aim of this study was to investigate some wood properties of untreated, unfinished Norway spruce and their influence on moisture dynamics and crack development under natural exposure. Three field-trials were carried out, all under natural exposure during various exposure times. The specimens differed in their exposure direction (north/south), composition (heartwood/ sapwood), density, and thickness. Moisture measurements were carried out either by use of sensors or weighing the specimens, while the crack formation was measured using digital calipers. Generally, high-density spruce exhibited more rapid moisture fluctuations than low-density; this agreed well with the increased crack development observed in the field-trials. More cracks were observed for specimens containing sapwood rather than heartwood. This was likely caused by an increase in moisture uptake, generating greater moisture gradients. The results also showed that the crack tendency was greater in specimens within the high-density group placed facing south, which is likely due to an increase in moisture variation, and perhaps also faster UV-deterioration. No clear correlation between crack tendency and thickness was found.

This article reviews the potential of uncoated Norway spruce as a façade material. Aspects such as natural durability, permeability properties, impact of density, and product dimensions are discussed. The review concludes that a careful design of the product is needed due to the intrinsic properties of the spruce species. Natural photodegradation will occur but has been proven not to impact spruce to a greater degree than other species. The optimal choice for a Norway spruce panel would be made of heartwood without juvenile tissues, with a vertical growth ring orientation. The selection of density is, however, unclear since low density reduces crack formation but could facilitate favourable levels of moisture for fungal colonisation. Additionally, the width of the growth ring has an unpredictable effect on the formation of cracks when the effect of early and latewood interaction cooperates with the effect of density.

A relevant issue with charred exteriors is the inconsistency of the result, which makes service life predictions complicated. Contact charring enables the creation of a very evenly modified surface with accurate control of temperature and modification time, but the weathering properties are questionable. This paper evaluated the effect of the modification time relative to char layer and transition zone thickness, wood species and material density in an artificial weathering test. The results revealed higher color stability in connection to longer modification time, but also an increase in the cracked surface area. Cracking was heavily dependent on the modification regime and increased with increasing char and transition zone thicknesses. Dense spruce had the highest color stability with the most severe modification regime, but char layer thickness varied more than on other wood types. Furthermore, species-dependent cracking patterns affected the final result as the small-scale flaking experienced by birch increased the washing off of char. It is likely an even higher modification temperature with a shorter modification time is needed to produce sufficient weathering resistance suitable for exterior uses.

Water is one of the most significant factors for the durability of wood. A common solution is to use a coating to protect and maintain low water content. However, little knowledge exists how the underlying wood substrate affects the water sorption of coated wood. Therefore, the liquid water absorption of coated and uncoated Norway spruce heartwood and sapwood with a variety of densities was measured by letting the panels float freely in the water. The effect of one year weathering of the coatings was also included. Coated heartwood and sapwood had no difference in water absorption in opposite to uncoated spruce. The influence of heartwood and sapwood seemed to have limited impact when a coating hindered the presence of free water. Wood density had a positive effect on the absorption of coated wood, i.e. low absorption for low-density samples, in opposite to uncoated samples. Low-density characteristic also contributed to a lower increase of water absorption after weather degradation, for samples with water-borne coatings. Natural weathering enhanced the effect of wood characteristics on coated samples, likely by an increase of coating permeability.

Wood used outdoors is often degraded and discoloured by microorganisms as a natural part of its life cycle, particularly when exposed to high levels of moisture for prolonged times. In this case, the application of a coating (i.e. paint) is an option for increasing the service life of the wood.

Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) is commonly used for outdoor applications in Sweden. Earlier studies have shown that uncoated spruce heartwood is less prone to moisture sorption in outdoor exposure, resulting in lower moisture content (MC) levels, as compared to sapwood. However, studies related to the above mentioned characteristics are rather limited for coated spruce, especially including the influence of outdoor exposure (i.e. weathering).

The aim of this thesis is, therefore, to increase the knowledge of how heartwood and sapwood of different densities influence on the durability of coated Norway spruce for outdoor use. Different types of coatings with alkyd-, acrylic-, flour- (calcimine paint), or linseed-oil-based resin were included. The objectives were to study the water sorption (including MC variation) behaviour and crack formation of uncoated and coated heartwood and sapwood of different densities.

Furthermore was an objective to study the microbial growth on the surface of similar samples of coated spruce in outdoor exposure. The used methods included wetting and liquid permeability experiments, accelerated water absorption (with samples floating freely in water), and outdoor field test. The field method lasted between three to five years and involved monitoring of the MC variation, the crack formation and the microbial growth on the samples.

The results based on wetting measurements using octane as the adsorbed liquid showed no difference in liquid permeability between the spruce heartwood and sapwood samples of comparable densities, and indicated a similar level of pit aspiration (closure). The common flow path between two cells of conifers occurs through the pits. Still, the sapwood samples had in general a clearly higher water sorption rate than heartwood samples. It could be concluded that the increased sorption was presumably caused by a lowered water surface tension, most likely by a contamination effect of the water by surface-active sapwood extractives rather than differences in morphology of heartwood and sapwood.

However, no clear difference in water absorption and MC levels was seen between coated heartwood and sapwood in the field study or in the accelerated water absorption study. Thus, it is suggested that a coating hinders the surfaceactive extractives to lower the water surface tension, resulting in a similar water absorption behaviour of coated heartwood and sapwood. The influence of density on water sorption of coated spruce was similarly to uncoated spruce, meaning the low-density samples had a higher MC than the high-density samples in the field tests. Furthermore, a one-year weathering of the coated and uncoated samples caused a larger increase in water sorption of high-density heartwood in the accelerated water absorption study.

The field study on uncoated and calcimine-coated spruce showed a higher number of cracks on the high-density samples than on the low-density samples. Additionally, within each density group, a larger number of cracks were seen on sapwood samples as compared to heartwood samples. High-density samples with an alkyd- or an acrylic coating also showed a higher number of cracks. As expected, the formation of cracks on the samples increased their water sorption significantly. The microbial growth was higher on sapwood than on heartwood samples with a white coloured alkyd coating.

The main conclusion is that heartwood and sapwood of different densities influence the water sorption and durability of coated Norway spruce. However, the principles in water sorption of uncoated heartwood and sapwood could not be applied to coated samples. Overall, the results point out that low-density heartwood could be the best material combination to improve the durability of coated spruce in outdoor use. The knowledge acquired in this thesis can enable an increased service life of coated spruce in outdoor use. The increase in service life is achieved by a careful selection of the wood material regarding the proportion of heartwood and to the choice of wood density. As a concluding remark, the role of surface-active spruce extractives needs to be explored, and a follow-up investigation in the context of water sorption is suggested for future research.

A protective coating is often used on the cladding of wooden facades to limit the absorption of moisture. Low wood moisture content (MC) is essential to obtain satisfactory durability performance. Wood density is known to influence the water sorption and crack formation of uncoated wood. However, the effect of density on the aforementioned behaviors of coated spruce is not yet fully understood. Six-years of data on the crack formation and the MC variation of outdoor exposed panels are analyzed in this article. The outdoor test was complemented by a subsequent laboratory experiment, wherein the MC variation was monitored at different depths on the board during artificial water spraying. The aim of this research was to increase the knowledge about how wood density and aging affect the water sorption of coated spruce through the crack formation. The results indicated that wood density had an impact on the overall sorption behavior of coated spruce. Low-density spruce contributed to faster water absorption and desorption processes than coated samples with higher density. However, the observed correlation to density was limited to a condition with an intact coating. High-density characteristics contributed to more crack formation, and the density–sorption relationship reversed with a cracked coating. A cracked coating caused a strong local increase in the MC of the wood at the location of the cracks. Weather-exposed replicates without cracks had a higher MC in the core of the board compared with the value beneath the coating. The higher MC is probably due to the water sorption of the uncoated backside of the panel. Such an occurrence raised awareness for future studies to account for multidimensional sorption behavior from all sides of the panel. The local difference in MC also raises awareness for future studies to investigate local MC variations (as opposed to the global average of the panel) in research on the durability of coated wood.

The use of wood contributes to the global transformation into a bio-based community. There are, however, challenges. The growth of mold, rot fungi, and algae on the coated surface is of major concern due to decreased aesthetic service life and shorter maintenance intervals. The colonization of a coated surface requires the presence of spores, nutrients, and a sufficient amount of water. This work studied the influence of using heartwood and sapwood on the moisture content (MC) and growth of microorganisms on the surface of coated Norway spruce boards [Picea abies (L.) Karst.]. The results revealed a relationship of heartwood samples having a lower MC and a lower or equal degree of biological growth on the coated surface than sapwood samples. The relationship was valid through a range of densities (309–548 kg/m³) and two different coating systems based on either an alkyd or an acrylic resin. Furthermore, the choice of coating color (red compared to white) affected the MC as the red-colored samples had a lower MC, combined with no growth of microorganisms.

The moisture sorption behaviour of wood strongly influences the durability of exterior-coated wood. Wood characteristics are known to influence the water sorption of uncoated wood. Despite this, the majority of the research on coated wood has been focused on the coating properties. This study aims to investigate the impact of heartwood, sapwood and density on the moisture content (MC) and crack formation of coated Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.). Boards with film-forming coatings or a non-film-forming coating were exposed outdoors during 3 years. Crack development and the mass of the boards were recorded during this period. Heartwood and sapwood samples showed no differences in MC. Thus, a coating seems to reduce the differences in water sorption behaviour that is present in uncoated heartwood and sapwood spruce. The reduction is probably related to wetting properties and different sorption mechanisms, involving free and bond water diffusion. However, the low-density samples had significantly higher MC levels than the high-density samples. The high-density samples with a non-film-forming coating showed a higher number of cracks than those with lower density. Furthermore, sapwood samples had a remarkably high number of cracks when compared to the corresponding heartwood samples, despite a similar density and MC.

A multicycle Wilhelmy plate method was applied to study the water and octane sorption behaviour of small Norway spruce veneers. Dry heart- and sapwood samples of varying density were investigated. The results showed a correlation between the porosity and the sorption of octane for all samples, i.e. a higher wood porosity resulted in higher octane sorption. However, no difference in octane sorption was found between heart- and sapwood samples of similar density. The water sorption behaviour was difficult to interpret, probably due to the influence of surface-active wood extractives. It is suggested that the presence of such extractives, particularly in the sapwood samples, increases the sorption of water due to a significant decrease in its apparent surface tension. Hence, the results indicate that the liquid water sorption of spruce heart- and sapwood is strongly influenced by variations in the extractives content rather than by the micromorphology.