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How recreational fishing affects fish and fisheries
Linnaeus University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Biology and Environmental Science. (Fish Ecology Research Group (FERG))ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1149-6246
2026 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Sustainable development
SDG 14: Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development
Alternative title
Hur fritidsfiske påverkar fisk och fiskbestånd (Swedish)
Abstract [en]

Recreational fishing provides substantial societal value but also represents a widespread form of exploitation of wild fish populations. In this thesis, I integrate approaches from fisheries science, ecology, animal behaviour, and eco-evolutionary modelling to examine how recreational fishing affects fish and fisheries through selective capture, catch-and-release, and temperature-dependent exposure.

Using large-scale digital angling data from Swedish inland fisheries combined with monitoring and environmental data, I show that angling selectively captures large individuals and predatory species. Species such as European perch and pikeperch are overrepresented in catches relative to their availability, and the size distribution of captured fish is shifted towards larger individuals. I further show that release rates have increased markedly over the last 14 years, reducing harvest while maintaining selectivity.

I find that angling exposure is strongly structured by water temperature, with effort peaking at relatively warm conditions and concentrated to a limited part of the annual thermal range. Species-specific catches vary across the temperature gradient in ways broadly consistent with species’ thermal niches, whereas release rates change little between typical and high-temperature conditions.

I also investigated sublethal effects of catch-and-release using field and laboratory experiments. In northern pike, I found no detectable effects of capture on reproductive traits, including spawning migration timing, maturity status, egg size, and egg viability. Similarly, experimental exposure to catch-and-release stress in rainbow trout revealed no evidence of lasting impairment, but did cause short-term reductions in working memory, followed by recovery over time.

Using eco-evolutionary modelling, I show that long-term size-selective angling can alter life-history traits in perch populations, including growth, maturation, and reproductive investment. Despite relatively low to moderate angling pressure, detectable evolutionary changes have accumulated over the past century. Projections suggest that these changes will continue under ongoing fishing, while recovery following cessation of harvest may be slow and incomplete.

Together, these results show that recreational fishing can influence fish populations in many ways, where selective capture, widespread release, and environmentally structured exposure shape both immediate and long-term outcomes. This highlights the need for management approaches that consider not only how many fish are harvested, but also which individuals are captured, when fishing occurs, and how capture affects survival and fitness.

Abstract [sv]

Fritidsfiske har ett stort värde för samhället då det erbjuder rekreation, naturupplevelser och ibland god och näringsrik mat. Samtidigt påverkas fiskbestånd genom både uttag och catch-and-release (C&R), där det förstnämnda innebär att fisken tas bort ur beståndet, medan det senare kan orsaka allvarlig stress och i vissa fall dödlighet. Kunskapen om hur omfattande fritidsfiskets påverkan är och genom vilka mekanismer påverkan uppstår är fortfarande begränsad, vilket försvårar en effektiv förvaltning. I denna avhandling har jag studerat detta med fokus på spöfiske, och undersökt vilka fiskar som fångas, hur fiskets genomförande och framgång varierar med vattentemperatur, vad som händer när fisk återutsätts och vilka långsiktiga evolutionära effekter fisket kan få.

En betydande del av avhandlingen bygger på ett forskningssamarbete med iFiske AB, genom vilket jag fått tillgång till 1,7 miljoner digitala fångstrapporter inskickade mellan 2011 och 2024 från nästan 1 500 svenska fiskevårdsområden. Genom att kombinera dessa data med standardiserade provfiskedata från det nationella registret över sjöprovfisken (NORS, Sveriges lantbruksuniversitet) har jag kunnat sätta fångsterna i relation till hur fiskbestånden är sammansatta vad gäller arter och storlek.

Resultaten visar tydligt att fritidsfiskarna inte fångar fisk slumpmässigt. I stället utgörs fångsten främst av större individer och rovfisk. Arter som abborre och gös fångas oftare än vad man skulle förvänta sig utifrån deras förekomst i bestånden, medan andra vanliga arter såsom mört och gärs fångas mer sällan. Även inom arter är fångsten selektiv: de fiskar som fångas är i genomsnitt betydligt större än den genomsnittliga storleken i bestånden. Detta innebär att fritidsfiske, precis som yrkesfiske, kan skapa en selektiv borttagning av stora individer och högre trofiska nivåer. Sådan selektivitet har i flera hårt exploaterade kommersiella fiskbestånd kopplats till förändringar i artsammansättning, ålders- och storleksstruktur samt i vissa fall även evolutionära förändringar.

Fångstrapporterna visar att C&R blivit allt vanligare under de senaste 14 åren. Andelen fisk som släpps tillbaka har ökat från cirka 53 % år 2011 till 71 % år 2024. Detta innebär att det totala uttaget minskar, vilket i sig kan minska fiskets negativa effekter. Återutsättningsgraden skiljer sig dock mellan arter och storlekar. Mindre fiskar släpps oftare tillbaka, medan större individer oftare behålls, även om vissa arter, såsom gädda, i hög grad återutsätts oavsett storlek. Resultaten visar att C&R därmed förstärker storleksselektiviteten i uttaget jämfört med fångsten för arter som abborre och gös. Sammantaget innebär detta att C&R minskar uttaget men kan också förstärka selektiva uttagsmönster. I vilken utsträckning detta skiljer sig från ett direkt uttag beror dock på hur väl återutsatt fisk överlever och återhämtar sig. Dödlighet eller kraftigt nedsatt kondition efter återutsättning kan i praktiken motsvara ett uttag.

Eftersom vattentemperaturen påverkar hur fisk reagerar på C&R, är det viktigt att förstå hur fiskets intensitet och utfall varierar under olika temperaturförhållanden. Jag har därför undersökt detta genom att koppla fångstrapporter och försäljning av fiskekort till högupplösta temperaturdata från SMHI. Det säljs betydligt fler fiskekort under varma dagar än under kalla dagar. Fisketrycket är därmed inte jämnt fördelat över året, utan i hög grad koncentrerat till perioder med relativt varmt vatten. Inom varje art varierar fångsten med temperaturen, med högst fångster vid temperaturer som i stort speglar arternas övre temperaturpreferens. Även arter som föredrar kallare vatten fångas dock ofta vid relativt varma förhållanden, eftersom fisket då är mer intensivt. Andelen fisk som släpps tillbaka är däremot i stort sett oberoende av temperaturen. Detta är viktigt eftersom C&R vid högre temperaturer utsätter fisk för större fysiologisk stress och i vissa fall ökad dödlighet. Många fiskar exponeras därmed för C&R just under de perioder då de kan vara som mest känsliga.

För att bättre förstå effekterna av C&R har jag genomfört både fält- och laboratorieförsök. I en experimentell studie på gädda, som fångades med spö och återutsattes strax före lek, undersökte jag långsiktiga effekter av C&R på fortplantningen. Fiskar som hade fångats strax före lek skiljde sig inte från kontrollgruppen vad gäller tidpunkt för vandring till lekområden, könsmognad, äggkvalité eller äggens fertiliseringsgrad samt efterföljande överlevnad under inkubation. I ett laboratorieförsök på regnbåge undersökte jag om syrebrist i samband med fångst kan ge långsiktiga effekter på kognitiv förmåga. Resultaten visade att fisk som utsatts för simulerad C&R inte fick några bestående negativa effekter, men att de tillfälligt uppvisade försämrat arbetsminne några timmar efter exponering innan de återhämtade sig.

Med hjälp av ekologisk och evolutionär modellering, baserad på fångst- och provfiskedata, har jag studerat de långsiktiga konsekvenserna av ett sekel av storleksselektivt sportfiske på abborre i svenska insjöar. Resultaten visar att exploateringen sannolikt varit relativt låg till måttlig, men ändå över tid lett till små men mätbara evolutionära förändringar i fiskarnas tillväxt, storlek vid könsmognad och investering i reproduktion. Modellresultaten tyder också på att dessa förändringar fortsätter så länge fisket pågår, medan återhämtningen efter upphört fiske är långsammare än förändringarna under pågående fiske. Även om förändringarna sker gradvis och över lång tid innebär detta att även ett till synes begränsat fritidsfiske kan ge upphov till bestående förändringar i populationers egenskaper.

Sammanfattningsvis pekar avhandlingen på att fritidsfiskets påverkan sker genom ett samspel mellan selektiv fångst, en omfattande användning av C&R och hur fisketrycket är fördelat i tid. Fångsten och uttaget är starkt riktade mot stora individer och rovfisk, vilket kan ha både kortsiktiga och långsiktiga effekter, inklusive evolutionära förändringar. Andelen fångad fisk som släpps tillbaka har ökat markant under de senaste decennierna, vilket gör att utfallet av C&R, i termer av överlevnad och påverkan på fiskens hälsa, får en allt större betydelse. Fisket är dessutom koncentrerat till perioder då fisk ofta är mer känslig för C&R, vilket kan öka risken för negativa effekter. En förvaltning som främst fokuserar på uttagets storlek riskerar därför att missa centrala delar av effekterna. Resultaten ger stöd för att i större omfattning även beakta selektivitet och de faktorer som avgör hur fisk klarar återutsättning, såsom vattentemperatur. Samtidigt kvarstår viktiga osäkerheter, särskilt kring hur effekterna av C&R varierar mellan arter och miljöförhållanden, och var biologiskt relevanta tröskelvärden finns. Detta understryker behovet av fortsatt forskning för att bättre kunna förutsäga när och hur fritidsfiske får betydelse för fiskbestånd.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Kalmar: Linnaeus University Press, 2026. , p. 38
Series
Linnaeus University Dissertations ; 615
Keywords [en]
recreational fisheries, catch-and-release, size-selective harvesting, fishing-induced evolution, sublethal effects, angling effort, water temperature
National Category
Ecology
Research subject
Ecology, Aquatic Ecology
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-146189DOI: 10.15626/LUD.615.2026ISBN: 9789180824446 (print)ISBN: 9789180824453 (electronic)OAI: oai:DiVA.org:lnu-146189DiVA, id: diva2:2056809
Public defence
2026-05-22, Azur, Linnaeus University, Kalmar, 09:00 (English)
Opponent
Supervisors
Funder
Swedish Agency for Marine and Water ManagementCounty Administrative Board of Kronoberg CountyAvailable from: 2026-05-04 Created: 2026-04-30 Last updated: 2026-05-04Bibliographically approved
List of papers
1. Recreational fisheries selectively capture and harvest large predators
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Recreational fisheries selectively capture and harvest large predators
2024 (English)In: Fish and Fisheries, ISSN 1467-2960, E-ISSN 1467-2979, Vol. 25, no 5, p. 793-805Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Size- and species-selective harvest inevitably alters the composition of targeted populations and communities. This can potentially harm fish stocks, ecosystem functionality, and related services, as evidenced in numerous commercial fisheries. The high popularity of rod-and-reel recreational fishing, practiced by hundreds of millions globally, raises concerns about similar deteriorating effects. Despite its prevalence, the species and size selectivity of recreational fisheries remain largely unquantified due to a lack of combined catch data and fisheries-independent surveys. This study addresses this gap by using standardised monitoring data and over 60,000 digital angling catch reports from 62 distinct fisheries. The findings demonstrate a pronounced selectivity in recreational fisheries, targeting top predators and large individuals. Catch-and-release practices reduced the overall harvest by 60% but did not substantially alter this selectivity. The strong species- and size-specific selectivity mirror patterns observed in other fisheries, emphasising the importance of managing the potential adverse effects of recreational fisheries selective mortality and overfishing.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
John Wiley & Sons, 2024
Keywords
angling, catch reports, catch-and-release, fish monitoring, trophic alteration, truncation
National Category
Ecology
Research subject
Ecology, Aquatic Ecology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-129783 (URN)10.1111/faf.12839 (DOI)001228784700001 ()2-s2.0-85193805641 (Scopus ID)
Projects
EcoChange
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, Dnr 2018‐00605The Crafoord Foundation, Dnr 20210648Swedish Agency for Marine and Water Management, Dnr 01702‐2023
Available from: 2024-05-31 Created: 2024-05-31 Last updated: 2026-05-06Bibliographically approved
2. Catch-and-release is on the rise, but large fish remain vulnerable
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Catch-and-release is on the rise, but large fish remain vulnerable
2026 (English)In: Fisheries (Bethesda, Md.), ISSN 0363-2415, E-ISSN 1548-8446, article id vuag011Article in journal (Refereed) Epub ahead of print
Abstract [en]

Catch and release (C&R) is widely promoted to reduce harvest mortality and support sustainable recreational fisheries. However, understanding its ecological, social, and management implications remains limited by the lack of large-scale, long-term data sets revealing whether C&R practices differ among species and change over time. We analyzed over 1 million caught fish (2011–2024) across 39 species and 1,286 Swedish inland fisheries, reported via the online license platform iFiske AB. The prevalence of C&R increased from ∼53% to 71% during 2011–2024, though trajectories and magnitudes differed among species. Size-specific analyses showed that longer individuals were released less frequently than shorter conspecifics for four of the six main target species (Northern Pike Esox lucius, European Perch Perca fluviatilis, Zander Sander lucioperca, European Grayling Thymallus thymallus, Brown Trout Salmo trutta, and Arctic Char Salvelinus alpinus). Overall, our findings indicate that recreational fisheries are shifting towards lower exploitation rates. Nevertheless, the lower release rates of large individuals, critical for recruitment and ecosystem functioning, highlight an important demographic and management concern. These insights are essential for assessing the sustainability of recreational fishing and for guiding management strategies that balance harvest opportunities with long-term population viability, while emphasising angler education to ensure responsible release practices.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Oxford University Press (OUP), 2026
Keywords
angler behaviour, inland fisheries, selective harvest, citizen science data, fisheries management
National Category
Ecology
Research subject
Ecology, Aquatic Ecology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-145412 (URN)10.1093/fshmag/vuag011 (DOI)001706405000001 ()
Projects
EcoChange
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2018-00605The Crafoord Foundation, 20210648
Available from: 2026-03-08 Created: 2026-03-08 Last updated: 2026-05-06
3. Water temperature mediates recreational fishing exposure across freshwater species
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Water temperature mediates recreational fishing exposure across freshwater species
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Water temperature is a key driver of fish activity, catchability, recreational fishing effort and in some species post-release mortality. Quantifying how temperature is associated with recreational angler activity, species-specific catches, and catch-and-release practices is therefore essential for anticipating recreational fishing impacts under ongoing climate warming, especially in temperate and polar regions where climate change is expected to increase summer temperatures. We analysed a large-scale observational dataset of digital recreational fishing reports from Sweden, northern Europe, covering almost 1 300 inland fisheries encompassing 1.75 million daily licences and about 780 000 captured fish reported over five years, in combination with fishery-specific estimates of daily water temperature. Angling effort increased with water temperature up to intermediate–high levels before levelling off or declining under the warmest conditions. Species-specific catches showed contrasting temperature-related patterns, broadly consistent with unimodal relationships that differed among cold-, cool- and warm-water adapted species. The proportion of fish released was largely invariant between typical and high-temperature conditions, with only limited differences among species in temperature responses. Together, these results show that water temperature is strongly linked to recreational angling effort and fishing outcomes in ways relevant for anticipating how warming conditions may reshape fishing impacts.

Keywords
catch and release, fish, fishing pressure, recreational fisheries, temperature, warming
National Category
Ecology
Research subject
Ecology, Aquatic Ecology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-146166 (URN)
Projects
EcoChange
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2018-00605The Crafoord Foundation, 20210648
Available from: 2026-04-29 Created: 2026-04-29 Last updated: 2026-05-06
4. Examining the effects of authentic C&R on the reproductive potential of Northern pike
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Examining the effects of authentic C&R on the reproductive potential of Northern pike
Show others...
2021 (English)In: Fisheries Research, ISSN 0165-7836, E-ISSN 1872-6763, Vol. 243, article id 106068Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

The practice within recreational fisheries to release captured fish back to the wild, known as catch-and-release (C&R), is an increasingly important strategy to protect fish stocks from overexploitation. However, C&R is a stressor and since animal reproduction is particularly sensitive to stress there is reason to suspect that such a practice induces sublethal fitness consequences. Here, we investigated whether and how C&R fishing influenced the reproductive potential in an anadromous population of Northern pike (Esox lucius). First, female pike were exposed to authentic C&R using rod-and-reel fishing in a coastal foraging habitat prior to the spawning period. Next, we observed the migration to the freshwater spawning habitat and compared both the timing of arrival and maturity stage between C&R-treated and control individuals. Finally, to evaluate effects on the quality and viability of eggs we stripped captured control and recaptured C&R-treated females, measured egg dry mass to assess nutrient content, conducted artificial fertilisations and incubated eggs in a controlled laboratory experiment. We found no evidence of C&R causing alterations in either arrival time, maturity stage, or the quality and viability of fertilised eggs. In combination, our results suggest that long-term effects of C&R-induced stress on key reproductive traits of pike, if any, are minor.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2021
Keywords
Angling, Migration, Recreational fishing, Reproduction, Stress
National Category
Ecology
Research subject
Ecology, Aquatic Ecology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-106097 (URN)10.1016/j.fishres.2021.106068 (DOI)000690429400010 ()2-s2.0-85109759648 (Scopus ID)2021 (Local ID)2021 (Archive number)2021 (OAI)
Projects
EcoChange
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2018-00605The Crafoord Foundation, 20190636
Available from: 2021-08-09 Created: 2021-08-09 Last updated: 2026-05-06Bibliographically approved
5. Transient cognitive impacts of oxygen deprivation caused by catch-and-release angling
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Transient cognitive impacts of oxygen deprivation caused by catch-and-release angling
Show others...
2025 (English)In: Biology Letters, ISSN 1744-9561, E-ISSN 1744-957X, Vol. 21, no 1, article id 20240527Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

Vertebrate brain function is particularly sensitive to the effects of hypoxia, with even brief periods of oxygen deprivation causing significant brain damage and impaired cognitive abilities. This study is the first to investigate the cognitive consequences of hypoxia in fish, specifically induced by exhaustive exercise and air exposure, conditions commonly encountered during catch-and-release (C&R) practices in recreational fishing. Angling exerts substantial pressure on inland fish populations, underscoring the need for sustainable practices like C&R. While C&R survival rates are generally high, understanding its sublethal impacts is crucial for evaluating the practice’s ethical and ecological sustainability. We examined the effects of these stressors on the cognitive function of 238 rainbow trout, using the free movement pattern Y-maze method to assess working memory through navigational search patterns during free exploration sessions. Our results showed that air exposure led to short-term (3–4 h post-treatment), but transient impairments in working memory, with no long-term cognitive deficits observed at one week and one month post-treatment. These findings emphasize the high tolerance of fish to hypoxia and support the sustainability of C&R as a tool in fisheries management.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Royal Society, 2025
Keywords
brain function, working memory, recreational fishing, hypoxia, y-maze, rainbow trout
National Category
Zoology Ecology Behavioral Sciences Biology
Research subject
Ecology, Aquatic Ecology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-134583 (URN)10.1098/rsbl.2024.0527 (DOI)001397278000003 ()39809327 (PubMedID)2-s2.0-85215688850 (Scopus ID)
Projects
EcoChange
Funder
The Crafoord Foundation, Dnr 20210648Swedish Research Council Formas, Dnr 2018-00605
Available from: 2025-01-16 Created: 2025-01-16 Last updated: 2026-05-06Bibliographically approved
6. Inferring human-induced evolution in retrospect
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Inferring human-induced evolution in retrospect
(English)Manuscript (preprint) (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Debate has shifted from whether harvest by humans can drive evolution to how much, and how generally, it has done so in the wild. These remain unresolved questions because historical selection regimes are rarely known. We introduce Retrospective Eco-Evolutionary Inference Models (REEIM), a Bayesian framework that reconstructs past selection and trait dynamics from contemporary population data. Applied to present-day life-history patterns and catch selectivity across European perch (Perca fluviatilis) populations, REEIM reconstructs a century of recreational fisheries-induced selection and uncover modest but persistent evolutionary change in life-history traits, constrained by estimated harvest history and trait evolvability. REEIM enables retrospective inference without historical time series and provides a general framework for quantifying human-driven evolution across anthropogenically exploited, data-limited populations.

Keywords
human-driven evolution, fisheries-induced evolution, FIE, retrospective inference, eco-evolutionary modelling, recreational fishing, angling
National Category
Ecology Evolutionary Biology
Research subject
Ecology, Aquatic Ecology; Ecology, Evolutionary Biology
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-146184 (URN)
Projects
EcoChange
Funder
Swedish Research Council Formas, 2018-00605Swedish Research Council, 2023-03545Ecosystem dynamics in the Baltic Sea in a changing climate perspective - ECOCHANGE
Available from: 2026-04-30 Created: 2026-04-30 Last updated: 2026-05-06

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