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Managing health risks in urban agriculture: The effect of vegetable washing for reducing exposure to metal contaminants
Linnaeus University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Biology and Environmental Science. Linnaeus University, Linnaeus Knowledge Environments, Sustainable Health. Linnaeus University, Linnaeus Knowledge Environments, Water.
Linnaeus University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Biology and Environmental Science.ORCID iD: 0000-0001-5799-6329
Linnaeus University, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Department of Biology and Environmental Science.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-1977-4095
James Hutton Inst, UK.ORCID iD: 0000-0002-9698-9700
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2023 (English)In: Science of the Total Environment, ISSN 0048-9697, E-ISSN 1879-1026, Vol. 863, article id 160996Article in journal (Refereed) Published
Abstract [en]

A common, yet poorly evaluated, advice to remove contaminants from urban vegetables is to wash the produce before consumption. This study is based on 63 samples of chard, kale, lettuce and parsley that have grown near a heavily traf-ficked road in the third largest city in Sweden, with one portion of each sample being analysed without first being washed, and the other portion being subjected to common household washing. Concentrations of 71 elements were analysed by ICP-SFMS after a sample digestion that dissolves both the plant tissues and all potentially adhering parti-cles. The results show that the washing effect, or the fraction removed upon washing, varies significantly between el-ements: from approximately 0 % for K to 68 % for the n-ary sumation REEs. Considering traditional metal contaminants, the efficiency decreased from Pb (on average 56 % lost) to Co (56 %) > Cr (55 %) > As (45 %) > Sb (35 %) > Ni (33 %) > Cu (13 %) > Zn (7 %) > Cd (7 %), and Ba (5 %). A clear negative correlation between the washing effect and the different elements' bioconcentration factors shows that the elements' accessibility for plant uptake is a key control-ling factor for the degree to which they are removed upon washing. Based on the average washing efficiencies seen in this study, the average daily intake of Pb would increase by 130 % if vegetables are not washed prior to consumption. For the other contaminant metals this increase corresponds to 126 % (Co), 121 % (Cr), 82 % (As), 55 % (Sb), 50 % (Ni), 16 % (Cu), 8 % (Zn), 7 % (Cd) and 5 % (Ba). The advice to wash vegetables is therefore, for many elements, highly motivated for reducing exposure and health risks. For elements which are only slightly reduced when the vegetables are washed, however, advising should rather focus on reducing levels of contamination in the soil itself.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Elsevier, 2023. Vol. 863, article id 160996
Keywords [en]
Urban gardening, Soil contamination, Soil-plant transfer, Soil particle adherence, Vegetable washing, Risk assessment
National Category
Environmental Sciences
Research subject
Natural Science, Environmental Science
Identifiers
URN: urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-118830DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.160996ISI: 000908653400001PubMedID: 36539086Scopus ID: 2-s2.0-85144354171OAI: oai:DiVA.org:lnu-118830DiVA, id: diva2:1732208
Available from: 2023-01-30 Created: 2023-01-30 Last updated: 2025-09-22Bibliographically approved
In thesis
1. Factors Controlling Soil-to-Crop Metal Transfer in Contaminated Environments
Open this publication in new window or tab >>Factors Controlling Soil-to-Crop Metal Transfer in Contaminated Environments
2025 (English)Doctoral thesis, comprehensive summary (Other academic)
Abstract [en]

Cultivation in urban environments presents both opportunities and challenges, particularly when it takes place in soils affected by historical and ongoing human activities. This doctoral thesis investigates the transfer of potentially toxic elements (PTEs) from soil to crops cultivated in urban environments. To address the research questions and account for the structure of the experimental designs, a suite of tailored statistical methods was applied: Multiple Linear Regression (MLR) was used where predictor independence was assured; Partial Least Squares Regression (PLS-R) was employed to manage multicollinearity and high-dimensional data; and Linear Mixed Models (LMMs) were used to account for hierarchical data structures and site-specific variability. These approaches enabled the development of predictive models that incorporate both geochemical soil properties and crop-specific responses. More phytoavailable elements, such as cadmium (Cd), showed to be more easily modelled, compared to elements with stronger binding to soil particles, such as lead (Pb). Variable selection techniques were used to identify the most influential soil parameters, with soil pH, organic matter and clay content, together with total metal concentrations, frequently emerging as key predictors of metal uptake.

In addition to modelling root uptake, the thesis evaluates the contribution of physical contamination through particle adherence. This was achieved through controlled experiments and field sampling, including washing trials and quantification of adhering soil and dust particles. The findings demonstrate that surface deposition can significantly influence metal concentrations in crops, underscoring the need to consider both geochemical and physical pathways in exposure evaluations.

The practical implications of this work are twofold. First, it provides examples of suitable and appropriate modelling strategies based on data structure, research questions, and experimental conditions. Second, it offers evidence-based guidance for urban growers, planners, and regulators on how soil properties, fertilisation practices, and crop handling influence contamination levels. The results support the development of soil-specific management strategies that reduce human exposure to PTEs and promote safer food production in urban environments.

Abstract [sv]

Populärvetenskaplig sammanfattning

Odla tryggt i staden med kunskap som växer

Allt fler stadsbor väljer att odla sina egna grönsaker på innergårdar, kolonilotter och gemensamma odlingsytor. Det är ett sätt att bidra till lokal matförsörjning, skapa gemenskap och göra staden grönare och mer levande. Samtidigt finns det områden i staden som kan bära spår av ett förorenat förflutet. Under lång tid har stadsmiljöer påverkats av trafik, industrier och gamla avfallsupplag. Metaller från avgaser, däckslitage, byggnation och industriella utsläpp kan finnas kvar i jorden under lång tid, eftersom de inte bryts ner naturligt.

I min avhandling har jag undersökt hur sådana metallföroreningar kan påverka grönsaker som odlas i förorenade stadsmiljöer. Genom att kombinera odlingsexperiment med statistiska analyser har jag studerat hur jordens egenskaper, till exempel pH-värde, lerhalt och mängden organiskt material, påverkar hur metaller tas upp av växterna. Jag har också tittat på hur damm och jordpartiklar kan fastna på bladen och bidra till metallhalter i skörden.

Resultaten visar att vissa metaller, som kadmium, lätt tas upp via rötterna, medan andra, som bly, främst fastnar på växtens yta. Att skölja grönsakerna innan man äter dem kan minska halterna av vissa metaller, men för en del metaller är sköljeffekten mycket begränsad. Dessutom påverkar valet av gödsel och jordförbättringar hur metaller rör sig i jorden och tas upp av växterna.

Stadsmiljön rymmer stor potential för småskalig och lokal livsmedelsodling. Det går att odla både säkert och hållbart även i områden där jorden kan vara påverkad av tidigare verksamheter, så länge man har kunskap om platsens förutsättningar. Genom att förstå odlingsjordens egenskaper och hur olika metaller beter sig kan man fatta kloka beslut om var och hur man odlar, och även hur man hanterar sina skördade grödor innan de hamnar på tallriken. Avhandlingen ger praktisk kunskap som både odlare och stadsplanerare kan använda för att skapa tryggare och mer hållbara odlingsmiljöer i staden. Målet är att fler ska kunna odla sin egen mat med glädje, gemenskap och trygghet.

Place, publisher, year, edition, pages
Växjö: Linnaeus University Press, 2025. p. 96
Series
Linnaeus University Dissertations ; 577
Keywords
Urban cultivation, Statistical modelling, Soil contamination, Metal uptake, Physical contamination, Risk management
National Category
Environmental Sciences
Research subject
Natural Science, Environmental Science
Identifiers
urn:nbn:se:lnu:diva-141674 (URN)10.15626/LUD.577.2025 (DOI)978-91-8082-328-9 (ISBN)978-91-8082-329-6 (ISBN)
Public defence
2025-09-12, Azur, Hus Vita, Kalmar, 09:00 (Swedish)
Opponent
Supervisors
Available from: 2025-09-23 Created: 2025-09-22 Last updated: 2025-10-22Bibliographically approved

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Augustsson, AnnaLundgren, MariaQvarforth, AnnaHough, Rupert

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